TUGAS PROSE
Resti Tantiawanti
082122063
6B
HAMLET
by H. G. Wyatt
I. 1. Hamlet is a young prince of Denmark, being a thoughtful young man and loving his father.
2. He died suddenly in a mysterious way. He had died from the bite of a snake while he was asleep one afternoon in his orchard.
3. For three nights in succession guard of soldiers that kept watch by nights before the castle had seen a ghost. The ghost had appeared at midnight and dressed from head to foot in armor which was just like the armor of the old dead king and its face was just like his face.
4. About his father that it was given out that sleeping in orchard a serpent that did sting thy father’s life now wears in crown, it then commanded Hamlet to revenge his foul and most unnatural murder.
5. In future would behave outwardly as a madman, for in that way he thought his uncle would be most unlikely to suspect him and he would be able in that way to hide his feelings better.
6. he taking one of the players aside, he asked him if he know the play called “ The murder of Gonzago”, in which a duke named Gonzago was poisoned in his garden by a near relative who after wards married his widow.
7. Hamlet saw his mother grow pale, when Gonzago and his wife were seen conversing, and she about her husband died. And Claudius was panic – stricken when the next scene show how he win the love of Gonzago’s wife and Gonzago was shown asleep in his orchad.
8. Before he realizedthat hamlet was dangerous for him, and was beginning to be afraid of him.
9. Leartes was reputed to be the better fencer and the king persuaded him to use a sharp pointed sword ( which was forbidden in matches ) and to put poson on it. So that even scratch would be provefutal.
10. The queen die because she was drinking a poisoned bowl of wine. Claudius was stabbed by Hamle with the poisoned weapon. Laertes die when he was tight with Hamlet.
II. 1. Character
• Hamlet : Young Prince of Denmark, ambitious
• The King : King of Denmark, Hamlet father, wise
• Claudius : The brother of the king, Hamlet’s uncle, cruel
• The Queen : Hamlet’s mother, cruel
• The Ghost : Hamlet’s father ghost
• Horatio : Best friend of Hamlet’s, friendly, kind, helpful
• Polonius : an old famous for his experience, wisdom
• Ophelia : Daughter of Polonius, dutiful
• Leartes : The daughter of Ophelia, anger
2. Characterization :
• Hamlet : Round fully developed
• The King : Static
• Claudius : Dynamic
• The Queen : Dynamic
• The Ghost : Static
• Horatio : Dynamic
• Polonius : Static
• Ophelia : Static
• Leartes : Static
3. Setting :
• Castle : Page 1
• Country : Page 3
• Palace : Page 4
• In the ship : Page 8
• In the Cemelty : Page 9
4. Plot : Forward Plot
5. Climax :
• Page 10 : Hamlet seeing treachery all around him, ordered the attendants to shut the doors that no one should escape ‘ oh ! Villainy ! ‘ he exelaind, threachery ! seek it.
6. Resolution :
• Page 10, last paragraph : His tragic destiny fulfilled. Hamlet called his faithful friend Horatio to his side, and begged him to make known the true story of his father’smurder and of its revenge. Horatio had made a move as if to drink the poisone.
7. Moral Message : That the crime will never conquer and immortal
III. Resume
HAMLET
By W.G. Wyatt
Hamlet, the young prince of Denmark, was once the gayest and most lively of men. His father died suddenly in a mysterious way, and Hamlet being a thoughtful young man and loving his father who had died from the bite of a snake while he was asleep one afternoon in his orchard. Soon after his death, Claudius, the brother of the death king, and uncle to Hamlet, married the queen. Hamlet did not like his mother to marry again so quickly.
He did not love his uncle, who was as base and unworthy as his father had been upright and honorable. A suspicion had crept into his mind that Claudius had brought about the death of his father in order to get the crown for himself. The new king and queen noticed that the prince was gloomy and unhappy. They hated the black mourning clothes which Hamlet refused to leave of wearing because when they saw them they were reminded of the old king’s death.
Then a strange story was told to Hamlet. For three nights in succession guard of soldier that kept watch by nights before the castle and had seen a ghost. And it had appeared at midnight. It was dressed from head to foot in armor which was just like the armor of the old dead king. For if the ghost was indeed that of his father and it would be able to explain some of the doubts and fears that were in his mind. On the next night, Hamlet, Horatio and one of the soldier met for their midnight watch in front of the castle, and the ghost had come again beckoned to Hamlet to go aside, and the ghost quickly told him that in truth he had been murdered.
Returning to his two companies Hamlet made them swear to say nothing of what had happened that night, but only to Horatio did he speak of his talk with the ghost. And he mad a strange resolution, that in future he would behave outwardly as a madman. So in accordance with his plan, Hamlet’s talk and behavior became stranger than ever, especially when he was with the king and queen. Among the courtiers, there was an old man famous for his experience and wisdom, named Polonius. Now Polonius had a beautiful daughter named Ophelia. Her father had secretly encouraged their friendship because he had hoped that his daughter would some day marry Hamlet and so become a princess. He had told her not to encourage Hamlet too much.
For soon afterwards his daughter came to him, telling him how Hamlet had come to her badly dressed and miserable, with a pitiful look of sorrow on his face. Polonius at once thought that Hamlet was miserable because his love had not been returned and he was satisfied that this was the cause of all his madness. Hamlet thinking of the command of his father’s ghost to revenge his cruel murder. He could not make up his mind id the ghost’s story was really true; and if it was true, how could he kill his mother’s husband?
He resolved to find out definitely if the king and queen had really planned and carried out the murder, a party wandering actors came to the palace. Hamlet had seen them before and remembered that one of their plays told of the terrible murder of a duke, and of the grief of the duchess, his widow. ‘Now’, he thought, ‘I know of sure way to test whether the pair are guilty or not. So, taking one of the players aside, he asked him if he knew the play called ‘The Murder of Gonzago’. The actors said they knew it, and would act it if Hamlet wished.So Hamlet made some changes in the play, in order that it might be as like the actual murder of his father as possible.He invited King Claudius and the queen to come and see the play the next evening.Before the play began Hamlet went to his trusty friend Horatio, told him what he had arranged, and asked him to help him watch the behavior of the king and queen during it.
So when it was time for the play to begin. Hamlet and Horatio sat a little to one side the shadow, where they could watch the king without appearing to do so too openly. At the beginning of the play the duke Gonzago and his wife were seen conversing, and she declared that she would never marry again if her husband died. And at the words Hamlet saw his mother grow pale.For in the next scene the duke Gonzago was shown asleep in his orchard, and a man crept up to him and poured poison into his ear as he slept. The next scene shows how he wins the love of Gonzago’s wife. At this Claudius was panic-stricken, and seeing his own ghastly crime repeated before all the court, he could not bear to stay.
King Claudius had persuaded Gertrude, the queen, to send for Hamlet. But the scene he had just witnessed had made a great impression on him. It had brought his crime home to him, and his distrees he had fallen on his knees in an attempt at prayer.In the meantime the queen, who was waiting for her son, had made the cunning old courtier Polonius hide behind the curtains in her room so that there should be a witness to anything that Hamlet said. He had resolved not to kill the his mother, but he was determined to make her confess her guilt to him.
In the meantime the king had planned to get rid of Hamlet, for he realized that he was dangerous, and was beginning to be afraid of him. So he resolved to send him out of the country. But the prince was popular and it was difficult for the king to find a reason for sending him away. In reality he sent a sealed letter, carried by two courtiers who went with the prince, to the King of England ordering him to put Hamlet to death as soon as he landed on English soil.
So Hamlet was forced to leave his native land, but the king’s wicked design was not to be fulfilled. For, knowing his uncle’s character, the prince suspected treachery and was on his guard. But soon after they had started on their voyage. On the next day the ship was pursued by pirates and sailed so slowly that it was overtaken by them. Hamlet showed great bravery and boarded the pirate ship single-hande. In the meantime he had sent a message to Horatio, telling his friend all that had befallen him, and asking him to come with all speed.
They were astonished to see that it consisted of the king and queen and other high persons of the court, and that the mourners included Laertes, the brother of Ophelia. They heard Laertes reproach the priest for this, and then as the queen was scattering flowers over the grave, they heard her say. Hamlet understood with dismay that the dead woman was his dear Ophelia and that she must have killed herself. Ophelia had been made unhappy by her lover’s strange conduct, and when she heard that her father had been killed by him, she was overcome with grief, and lost her senses and drowned herself. He decided to make use of Laertes’s anger against the slayer of his father Polonius, and knowing that they were both skill full fencers he arranged for a match to take place between them. This was a crafty plan, for the king saw that if the prince was killed in this fencing match, his death would appear to be accidental and no blame would fall on anyone. Before the match started Hamlet assured Laertes of his friendship, and then the two took up their foils and began. At first the fight went rather in the prince’s favor, and when they stopped to rest the king drank to his success, but Hamlet would not drink, he said, until he had finished another bout. In the second bout Laertes warmed to the play and the match became very exciting. At the same time the queen was seen suddenly to fall, crying out that she had been poisoned. The deadly draught of wine had taken effect, and she died immediately.
Hamlet, seeing treachery all around him, ordered the attendants to shut the doors that no one should escape. Then the prince saw the king’s foul plot to kill him and understanding that he had only few moments of life left in which to carry out his revenge. His tragic destiny fulfiled, Hamlet called his faithful friend Horatio to his side, and begged him too make known the true story of his father’s murder and of its revenge. But when Hamlet begged him, he promised to live on and tell to the world the full story of the tragedy. Hamlet had just enough life left in him to hear Horatio’s promise, then, whispering the words. He was mourned as one who would have made a splendid king, and he was carried to his burial with soldier’s music, and a people’s mourning.
Kamis, 19 Mei 2011
LAPORAN HASIL DISKUSI (TUGAS MAT KUL SOCIOLINGUISTICS)
LAPORAN HASIL DISKUSI KELOMPOK 1 TENTANG LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL CLASS
Diajukan untuk Memenuhi Salah Satu Tugas Mata Kuliah Sociolinguistics
Disusun oleh :
Vita Fitriyani (082122044)
Sri Puspita Sari (082122059)
Resti Tantiawanti (082122063)
Yully Erpani (082122072)
Uu Parida (082122078)
6B
PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS
FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN
UNIVERSITAS SILIWANGI
2011
ISI LAPORAN
LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL CLASS
Moderator : Hikmah Muhsinah kelas 6B
Yulianti kelas 6A
PEMBAHASAN :
A. Pengertian
a. Sociolinguistics ( Sosiolinguistik)
Sosiolinguistik adalah gabungan kata dari socio dan linguistics. Kata socio berarti bagaimana bahasa digunakan dalam kehidupan masyarakat, dan linguistics adalah ilmu yang mempelajari tentang bahasa.
Maka yang disebut dengan sociolinguictics (sosiolinguistik) adalah pengenalan studi tentang bahasa yang menekankan pada hubungannya antara bahasa dan kehidupan sosial.
Sosiolinguistik berasal dari gabungan kata sosio dan linguistik, menunjukan bahwa bidang ilmu ini adalah perpaduan sosiologi dan linguistik. Adapula yang menyebutnya sebagai linguistics plus.
Kita dapat menyimak bahwa pembahasan pokok dalam ilmu ini adalah masyarakat dan bahasa. Maksud istilah masyarakat, dalam ilmu ini adalah mencakup kajian mengenai npihak – pihak yang terlibat dala interaksi kelompok besar maupun kecil, fungsi kelompok, perhubungan dan perbedaan dari segi bahasanya.
Maksud istilah bahasa mencakup gagasan – gagasan seperti perbedaan ragam regional,ragam kelompok sosial ( seperti bahasa golongan bangsawan, kelas tinggi dan rendah ), ragam stylistic ( resmi,santai, intim, dsb). Hal tersebut diamati dengan memberi perhatian kepada ciri – ciri pola bunyi dan sebutan, kosakata, ciri – ciri gramatikal atau pada tahap makna, yaitu semantic.
Sebagai contoh kita mengetahui bahwa orang – orang berbicara secara berbeda dating dari latar belakang yang berlainan, sehingga seringkali ujaran seseorang tersebut disangkutpautkan dengan tempat kelahirannya, pendidikannya, kelompok sosialnya, atau bahkan pekerjaanya.
b. Language ( Bahasa)
Language atau bahasa merupakan suatu system dari lambang bunyi arbitrer yang dihasilkan oleh alat ucap manusia dan dipakai oleh masyarakat dalam komunikasi, kerja sama dan identifikasi diri.
Menrut Keraf, dalam Smarapradhipa (2005:1), memberikan dua pengertian bahasa. Pengertian pertama menyatakan bahwa bahasa sebagai alat komunikasi antara anggota masyarakat berupa simbol bunyi yang diharapkan oleh alat ucap manusia. Kedua, bahasa adalah sistem komunikasi yang digunakan simbol – simbol vocal ( bunyi ujaran ) yang bersifat arbitrer.
Menurut Owen, dalam Setiawan (2006:1) menjelaskan definisi bahasa yaitu language can be define a socially shared combinations of those symbols and rule governed combination of those symbol ( bahasa dapat digunakan sebagai kode yang diterima secara sosial atau system konvensional untuk menyampaikan konsep melalui kegunaan symbol – symbol yang dikehendaki dan kombinasi simbol – simbol yang di atur oleh ketentuan).
Menurut Wibowo (2001:3), bahasa adalah system symbol bunyi yang bermakna dan berartikulasi ( dihasilkan oleh alat ucap) yang bersifat atbitrer dan konvensional, yang dipakai sebagai alat komunikasi oleh sekelompok manusia untk melahirkan perasaan dan pikiran.
c. Social Class ( Kelas Sosial )
Dalam Sistem Feodal ( sistem mengenai cara kepemilikan tanah di Eropa pada abad pertengahan), para bangsawan disertai dengan tradisi keluarga, kepriyayian, dan kesantriannya berprilaku menjadi kelompok yang dominan dalam mengatur. Sedangkan kaum kecil, seperti kaum buruh, petani, ataupun nelayan, tidak ada hak apapun dalam penentuan tanah, dikarenakan adanya anggapan bahwa kaum bangsawan dengan segala yang tradisi dan kepriyayiannya menjadi suatu yang membanggakan dan layak untuk dipatuhi oleh rakyat. Hal ini sangat menggambarkan adanya perbedaan kelas dan status antara sekelompok orang tertentu dengan lainnya. Selebihnya, hal ini akan menimbulkan suatu kesenjangan sosial satu sama lain.
Kelas Sosial adalah sebuah konsep sebuah konsep yang telah didiskusikan dan perdebatan sepanjang zaman. Ada banyak teori yag berbeda tentang definisi bekerja. Dasar sering digunakan untuk menggambarkan kelas sosial yang berasal dari abad ke 19 teori Karl Marx dari jerman, dia percaya dalam sistem tiga kelas yang terdiri dari kapitalis, pekerja, dan borjuis kecil. Sejak itu, sosiolog telah menyediakan konseptualisasi baru dari kelas sosial. Konseptualisasi ini termasuk kelas sosial sebagai lebih dari sekedar ukuran ekonomi. Banyak mendefinisikan kelas sosial sebagai lebih dari sebuah status sosial, yang berarti orang dalam kelas khusus beebagi pengalaman yang sama, latar belakang yang berbeda dan posisi dalam masyarakat. Faktor – faktor lain yang mempengaruhi peringkat kelas sosial prestise pekerjaan dan pendapat umum orang lain dalam masyarakat. Konsep status sosial dari sosiolog Jerman Marx Weber (1864-1920) digunakan oleh sejumlah sosiolog Amerika ketika menjelaskan kelas sosial. Weber melihat properti, keterampilan, dan pendidikan semua kontribusi terhadap konsep kelas sosial. Pandangannya mirip dengan dan kadang – kadang digunakan secara bergantian dengan status sosial ekonomi.
Meskipun sulit untuk mendapatkan definisi universal tentang kelas sosial dan tidak konsisten ada alasan untuk meneliti konsep ini. Kelas sosial memiliki dampak besar tentang bagaimana anak- anak dibesarkan , bagaimana mereka disekolahkan,dan bahkan dengan siapa mereka berteman. Untuk alasan ini adalah penting bahwa kelas sosial diperhitungkan ketika mempelajari perkembangan anak.
Kelas sosial adalah pengaturan ekonomi atau budaya kelompok n- kelompok dalam masyarakat. Kelas adalah objek penting dari analisis sosiolog, ahli politik,ekonom,antropolog dan sejarawan sosial. Dalam ilmu sosial,kelas sosial sering dibahas ‘stratifikasi sosial’ dari dalam. Dalam konteks barat modern,stratifikasi biasanya terdiri dari tiga bagian: kelas atas, kelas menengah, kelas bawah. Setiap kelas dapat di bagi lagi menjadi kelas – kelas yang lebih kecil. Perbedaan kelas yang lebih mendasar antara kuat dan tak berdaya. Sosial kelas dengan banyak daya biasanya dipandang sebagai “elite” dalam masyarakat mereka sendiri. Kelas sosial yang yang berkaitan luas untuk kekeyaan mungkin dibedakan dari status kelas berdasarkan kehormatan,prestise,afiliasi keagamaan.
B. Language and Social Class ( Bahasa dan Kelas Sosial )
Secara umum , hal ini dapat dilihat dari kelaas sosial yang terdiri dari masyarakat dari kalangan atas dan kalangan bawah. Selain itu, bisa juga dilihat dari klasifikasi yang berdasarkan pendidikan,pekerjaan, lingkungan, pendapatan, dan logat.
Status sosial diartikan sebagai sekumpulan orang yang hidup bersama berdasarkan status sosial masing – masing ynag mereka miliki. Para pemikir modern telah mencoba untuk mendefinisikan status sosial tersebut yaitu dapat dikelompokan berdasarkan :
• Accent (Logat atau suatu cara untuk mengucapkan suatu dialek tertentu)
• Neighbourhood (Lingkungan dimana kita tinggal)
• Occupation (Mata pencaharian atau pekerjaan)
• Wealth (Kekayaan)
• Income (Pendapatan)
Menurut pendapat lain, bahwa hubungan bahasa dan kelas sosial yaitu variasi yang terdapat dalam kelas sosial, diantaranya dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor yaitu :
Power (Kekuasaan )
Maksudnya dimana tingkatan atu derajat manusia atau seseorang terhadap orang lain dapat dikendalikan.
Wealth ( Kekayaan)
Merupakan objek atau simbol yang memiliki nilai – nilai berharga terhadap sesuatu yang mereka miliki. Kekayaan ini dapat melekat pada benda – benda mewah ataupun tempat – tempat yang mereka miliki.
Prestige ( harkat / martabat)
Merupakan tingkatan kehormatan , pandangan hidup, atau segala sesuatu yang dirasa penting adanya untuk seseorang dalam lingkungan masyarakat. Hal – hal yang menunjukan perbedaaan kelas sosial, diantaranya :
• Bagaimana penampilannya
• Bagaimana cara berbicaranya
• Apa yang sering dilakukan
• Dimana dia tinggal
• Bagaimana rumahnya
• Apa saja makanan sehari – harinya
PERTANYAAN:
Gita kelas 6B
1. Apa pengaruhnya bahasa formal dan non formal dalam social class?
2. Cakupan bahasa / bahasa yang digunakan oleh kalangan bawah terkesan “handap asor” tapi kenyataan diluar kan sebaliknya,jelaskan!
Ema kelas 6A
3. Dalam variasi social class ada yg dimaksud dengan power dalam kebangsaan, jelaskan dan beri contoh!
Rizqi kelas 6B
4. Apakah dengan bahasa yang halus menjadi ciri bahwa orang itu social kelasnya menengah kebawah? Jelaskan!
Jawaban :
1. Pengaruh bahasa formal adalah digunakan dalam bahasa resmi atau situasi yang memiliki tingkat kesopanan yang lebih atau acara yang diselenggarakan nya terkesan memiliki pendidikan dan bahasa yang digunakannya lebih sopan dan resmi,sedangkan bahasa nonformal pengaruhnya yaitu berbicara secara informal yaitu bahasa yang digunakan dalam bahasa sehari – hari dan terkesan bahasa yang digunakannya santai tanpa tergnatung situasi tapi tergantung dengan siapa lawan kita berbicara.
Dan segala sesuatu apaun bentuk bahasa tidak tergantung situasi tapi tergantung kelas sosialnya.
2. Biasanya bahasa di kehidupan luar yang jauh dari kehidupan pendidikan justru lebih keras bahasanya atau bisa dibilang bahasanya kurang sopan karena dari segi sosial dan tingkat pendidikannya kurang,maka dari itu bahasanya yang digunakannya pun kurang begitu sopan karena biasa hidup dengan orang yang disekitarnya pun tidak terlalu jauh hidup di dunia pendidikan,mungkin ada sebagian orang di kalangan menengah kebawah yang bahasanya “handap asor” atau sopan santun dan itupun juga biasa digunakan tergantung sosial kelasnya nya atau kelas sosialnya dengan siapa lawan bicara kita meskipun di dunia non formal juga.
3. Yang dimaksud power dalam kebangsaan nitu adalah dimana tingkatan atau derajat manusia atau seseorang terhadap orang lain dapat dikendalikan. Contohnya :
Majikan bisa mengendalikan anak buahnya,bisa mengendalikan bawahannya dikarenakan kekuasaannya,dalam artian untuk memanage atau memimpin. Dikarenakan seseorang bisa mengendalikan orang lain itu adalaj karena dia punya kekuasaan dan kekuatan.
4. Tidak. Karena tidak kurang orang dari kalangan menengah ke bawah bahasa yang digunakannya justru lebih kasar daripada kalangan menengah ke atas, dikarenakan sama karena lingkungan sosialnya yang tidak menentu.
SIMPULAN
Dari pemaparan hasil diskusi tentang Bahasa dan Kelas Sosial menyimpulkan bahwa perbedaan berbahasa dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat dapat dilihat dari kelas sosial yang terdiri atas perbedaan pendidikan, pekerjaan, lingkungan, pendapatan, dan logat. Dan variasi yang terdapat dalam kelas sosial yang mempengaruhi hubungan bahasa dengan kelas sosial yaitu : power (kekuasaan), wealth (kekayaan), prestige ( harkat / martabat).
Diajukan untuk Memenuhi Salah Satu Tugas Mata Kuliah Sociolinguistics
Disusun oleh :
Vita Fitriyani (082122044)
Sri Puspita Sari (082122059)
Resti Tantiawanti (082122063)
Yully Erpani (082122072)
Uu Parida (082122078)
6B
PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS
FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN
UNIVERSITAS SILIWANGI
2011
ISI LAPORAN
LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL CLASS
Moderator : Hikmah Muhsinah kelas 6B
Yulianti kelas 6A
PEMBAHASAN :
A. Pengertian
a. Sociolinguistics ( Sosiolinguistik)
Sosiolinguistik adalah gabungan kata dari socio dan linguistics. Kata socio berarti bagaimana bahasa digunakan dalam kehidupan masyarakat, dan linguistics adalah ilmu yang mempelajari tentang bahasa.
Maka yang disebut dengan sociolinguictics (sosiolinguistik) adalah pengenalan studi tentang bahasa yang menekankan pada hubungannya antara bahasa dan kehidupan sosial.
Sosiolinguistik berasal dari gabungan kata sosio dan linguistik, menunjukan bahwa bidang ilmu ini adalah perpaduan sosiologi dan linguistik. Adapula yang menyebutnya sebagai linguistics plus.
Kita dapat menyimak bahwa pembahasan pokok dalam ilmu ini adalah masyarakat dan bahasa. Maksud istilah masyarakat, dalam ilmu ini adalah mencakup kajian mengenai npihak – pihak yang terlibat dala interaksi kelompok besar maupun kecil, fungsi kelompok, perhubungan dan perbedaan dari segi bahasanya.
Maksud istilah bahasa mencakup gagasan – gagasan seperti perbedaan ragam regional,ragam kelompok sosial ( seperti bahasa golongan bangsawan, kelas tinggi dan rendah ), ragam stylistic ( resmi,santai, intim, dsb). Hal tersebut diamati dengan memberi perhatian kepada ciri – ciri pola bunyi dan sebutan, kosakata, ciri – ciri gramatikal atau pada tahap makna, yaitu semantic.
Sebagai contoh kita mengetahui bahwa orang – orang berbicara secara berbeda dating dari latar belakang yang berlainan, sehingga seringkali ujaran seseorang tersebut disangkutpautkan dengan tempat kelahirannya, pendidikannya, kelompok sosialnya, atau bahkan pekerjaanya.
b. Language ( Bahasa)
Language atau bahasa merupakan suatu system dari lambang bunyi arbitrer yang dihasilkan oleh alat ucap manusia dan dipakai oleh masyarakat dalam komunikasi, kerja sama dan identifikasi diri.
Menrut Keraf, dalam Smarapradhipa (2005:1), memberikan dua pengertian bahasa. Pengertian pertama menyatakan bahwa bahasa sebagai alat komunikasi antara anggota masyarakat berupa simbol bunyi yang diharapkan oleh alat ucap manusia. Kedua, bahasa adalah sistem komunikasi yang digunakan simbol – simbol vocal ( bunyi ujaran ) yang bersifat arbitrer.
Menurut Owen, dalam Setiawan (2006:1) menjelaskan definisi bahasa yaitu language can be define a socially shared combinations of those symbols and rule governed combination of those symbol ( bahasa dapat digunakan sebagai kode yang diterima secara sosial atau system konvensional untuk menyampaikan konsep melalui kegunaan symbol – symbol yang dikehendaki dan kombinasi simbol – simbol yang di atur oleh ketentuan).
Menurut Wibowo (2001:3), bahasa adalah system symbol bunyi yang bermakna dan berartikulasi ( dihasilkan oleh alat ucap) yang bersifat atbitrer dan konvensional, yang dipakai sebagai alat komunikasi oleh sekelompok manusia untk melahirkan perasaan dan pikiran.
c. Social Class ( Kelas Sosial )
Dalam Sistem Feodal ( sistem mengenai cara kepemilikan tanah di Eropa pada abad pertengahan), para bangsawan disertai dengan tradisi keluarga, kepriyayian, dan kesantriannya berprilaku menjadi kelompok yang dominan dalam mengatur. Sedangkan kaum kecil, seperti kaum buruh, petani, ataupun nelayan, tidak ada hak apapun dalam penentuan tanah, dikarenakan adanya anggapan bahwa kaum bangsawan dengan segala yang tradisi dan kepriyayiannya menjadi suatu yang membanggakan dan layak untuk dipatuhi oleh rakyat. Hal ini sangat menggambarkan adanya perbedaan kelas dan status antara sekelompok orang tertentu dengan lainnya. Selebihnya, hal ini akan menimbulkan suatu kesenjangan sosial satu sama lain.
Kelas Sosial adalah sebuah konsep sebuah konsep yang telah didiskusikan dan perdebatan sepanjang zaman. Ada banyak teori yag berbeda tentang definisi bekerja. Dasar sering digunakan untuk menggambarkan kelas sosial yang berasal dari abad ke 19 teori Karl Marx dari jerman, dia percaya dalam sistem tiga kelas yang terdiri dari kapitalis, pekerja, dan borjuis kecil. Sejak itu, sosiolog telah menyediakan konseptualisasi baru dari kelas sosial. Konseptualisasi ini termasuk kelas sosial sebagai lebih dari sekedar ukuran ekonomi. Banyak mendefinisikan kelas sosial sebagai lebih dari sebuah status sosial, yang berarti orang dalam kelas khusus beebagi pengalaman yang sama, latar belakang yang berbeda dan posisi dalam masyarakat. Faktor – faktor lain yang mempengaruhi peringkat kelas sosial prestise pekerjaan dan pendapat umum orang lain dalam masyarakat. Konsep status sosial dari sosiolog Jerman Marx Weber (1864-1920) digunakan oleh sejumlah sosiolog Amerika ketika menjelaskan kelas sosial. Weber melihat properti, keterampilan, dan pendidikan semua kontribusi terhadap konsep kelas sosial. Pandangannya mirip dengan dan kadang – kadang digunakan secara bergantian dengan status sosial ekonomi.
Meskipun sulit untuk mendapatkan definisi universal tentang kelas sosial dan tidak konsisten ada alasan untuk meneliti konsep ini. Kelas sosial memiliki dampak besar tentang bagaimana anak- anak dibesarkan , bagaimana mereka disekolahkan,dan bahkan dengan siapa mereka berteman. Untuk alasan ini adalah penting bahwa kelas sosial diperhitungkan ketika mempelajari perkembangan anak.
Kelas sosial adalah pengaturan ekonomi atau budaya kelompok n- kelompok dalam masyarakat. Kelas adalah objek penting dari analisis sosiolog, ahli politik,ekonom,antropolog dan sejarawan sosial. Dalam ilmu sosial,kelas sosial sering dibahas ‘stratifikasi sosial’ dari dalam. Dalam konteks barat modern,stratifikasi biasanya terdiri dari tiga bagian: kelas atas, kelas menengah, kelas bawah. Setiap kelas dapat di bagi lagi menjadi kelas – kelas yang lebih kecil. Perbedaan kelas yang lebih mendasar antara kuat dan tak berdaya. Sosial kelas dengan banyak daya biasanya dipandang sebagai “elite” dalam masyarakat mereka sendiri. Kelas sosial yang yang berkaitan luas untuk kekeyaan mungkin dibedakan dari status kelas berdasarkan kehormatan,prestise,afiliasi keagamaan.
B. Language and Social Class ( Bahasa dan Kelas Sosial )
Secara umum , hal ini dapat dilihat dari kelaas sosial yang terdiri dari masyarakat dari kalangan atas dan kalangan bawah. Selain itu, bisa juga dilihat dari klasifikasi yang berdasarkan pendidikan,pekerjaan, lingkungan, pendapatan, dan logat.
Status sosial diartikan sebagai sekumpulan orang yang hidup bersama berdasarkan status sosial masing – masing ynag mereka miliki. Para pemikir modern telah mencoba untuk mendefinisikan status sosial tersebut yaitu dapat dikelompokan berdasarkan :
• Accent (Logat atau suatu cara untuk mengucapkan suatu dialek tertentu)
• Neighbourhood (Lingkungan dimana kita tinggal)
• Occupation (Mata pencaharian atau pekerjaan)
• Wealth (Kekayaan)
• Income (Pendapatan)
Menurut pendapat lain, bahwa hubungan bahasa dan kelas sosial yaitu variasi yang terdapat dalam kelas sosial, diantaranya dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor yaitu :
Power (Kekuasaan )
Maksudnya dimana tingkatan atu derajat manusia atau seseorang terhadap orang lain dapat dikendalikan.
Wealth ( Kekayaan)
Merupakan objek atau simbol yang memiliki nilai – nilai berharga terhadap sesuatu yang mereka miliki. Kekayaan ini dapat melekat pada benda – benda mewah ataupun tempat – tempat yang mereka miliki.
Prestige ( harkat / martabat)
Merupakan tingkatan kehormatan , pandangan hidup, atau segala sesuatu yang dirasa penting adanya untuk seseorang dalam lingkungan masyarakat. Hal – hal yang menunjukan perbedaaan kelas sosial, diantaranya :
• Bagaimana penampilannya
• Bagaimana cara berbicaranya
• Apa yang sering dilakukan
• Dimana dia tinggal
• Bagaimana rumahnya
• Apa saja makanan sehari – harinya
PERTANYAAN:
Gita kelas 6B
1. Apa pengaruhnya bahasa formal dan non formal dalam social class?
2. Cakupan bahasa / bahasa yang digunakan oleh kalangan bawah terkesan “handap asor” tapi kenyataan diluar kan sebaliknya,jelaskan!
Ema kelas 6A
3. Dalam variasi social class ada yg dimaksud dengan power dalam kebangsaan, jelaskan dan beri contoh!
Rizqi kelas 6B
4. Apakah dengan bahasa yang halus menjadi ciri bahwa orang itu social kelasnya menengah kebawah? Jelaskan!
Jawaban :
1. Pengaruh bahasa formal adalah digunakan dalam bahasa resmi atau situasi yang memiliki tingkat kesopanan yang lebih atau acara yang diselenggarakan nya terkesan memiliki pendidikan dan bahasa yang digunakannya lebih sopan dan resmi,sedangkan bahasa nonformal pengaruhnya yaitu berbicara secara informal yaitu bahasa yang digunakan dalam bahasa sehari – hari dan terkesan bahasa yang digunakannya santai tanpa tergnatung situasi tapi tergantung dengan siapa lawan kita berbicara.
Dan segala sesuatu apaun bentuk bahasa tidak tergantung situasi tapi tergantung kelas sosialnya.
2. Biasanya bahasa di kehidupan luar yang jauh dari kehidupan pendidikan justru lebih keras bahasanya atau bisa dibilang bahasanya kurang sopan karena dari segi sosial dan tingkat pendidikannya kurang,maka dari itu bahasanya yang digunakannya pun kurang begitu sopan karena biasa hidup dengan orang yang disekitarnya pun tidak terlalu jauh hidup di dunia pendidikan,mungkin ada sebagian orang di kalangan menengah kebawah yang bahasanya “handap asor” atau sopan santun dan itupun juga biasa digunakan tergantung sosial kelasnya nya atau kelas sosialnya dengan siapa lawan bicara kita meskipun di dunia non formal juga.
3. Yang dimaksud power dalam kebangsaan nitu adalah dimana tingkatan atau derajat manusia atau seseorang terhadap orang lain dapat dikendalikan. Contohnya :
Majikan bisa mengendalikan anak buahnya,bisa mengendalikan bawahannya dikarenakan kekuasaannya,dalam artian untuk memanage atau memimpin. Dikarenakan seseorang bisa mengendalikan orang lain itu adalaj karena dia punya kekuasaan dan kekuatan.
4. Tidak. Karena tidak kurang orang dari kalangan menengah ke bawah bahasa yang digunakannya justru lebih kasar daripada kalangan menengah ke atas, dikarenakan sama karena lingkungan sosialnya yang tidak menentu.
SIMPULAN
Dari pemaparan hasil diskusi tentang Bahasa dan Kelas Sosial menyimpulkan bahwa perbedaan berbahasa dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat dapat dilihat dari kelas sosial yang terdiri atas perbedaan pendidikan, pekerjaan, lingkungan, pendapatan, dan logat. Dan variasi yang terdapat dalam kelas sosial yang mempengaruhi hubungan bahasa dengan kelas sosial yaitu : power (kekuasaan), wealth (kekayaan), prestige ( harkat / martabat).
CONTOH RPP (TUGAS MATAKULIAH ESP)
RENCANA PELAKSANAAN PEMBELAJARAN
(RPP)
Satuan Pendidikan : SMA NEGERI 1 KARANGNUNGGAL
Mata Pelajaran : Bahasa Inggris
Kelas/Semester : XII / 2
Alokasi Waktu : 2 x 45 Menit ( 1 x Pertemuan )
Skill : Reading
I.Standar Kompetensi
Memahami makna teks tulis monolog berbentuk review.
II.Kompetensi Dasar
Merespon makna teks tulis monolog berbentuk review.
III.Indikator
1.Mengidentifikasi berbagai informasi yang ada didalam teks berbetuk review.
2.Mengidentifikasi struktur teks review yang dibaca.
3.Menjawab pertanyaan dari teks berbentuk review.
IV.Tujuan Pembelajaran
1.Siswa dapat mengidentifikasi berbagai informasi dari teks berbetuk review.
2.Siswa dapat mengidentifikasi struktur teks review yang dibaca.
3.Siswa dapat menjawab pertanyaan dari teks berbentuk review.
V.Materi P embelajaran
A.Read the text carefully !
Brownies
A bite of sweet cake, a bite of love story.
Another Indonesian romantic drama feature film by a young and talented director,Hanung Bramantyo, will soon be released this year. Fans of Marcella Zalianty,Bucek Depp,and Arie U. Kuncoro will bw able to see their idols acting in a movie titled Brownies. The film is produced by SinemArt, which also produced ‘Mengejar matahari’’.
The theme is simple; it’s about love. Love with its bittersweet story becomes the highlight that enriches the movie plot. The reason is quite obvious: A love theme always attarct more people to come eo the cinema.
Mel ( Maecella zalianty), a copywriter in a advertising agency, has a life that’s focused on her job. Althought Mel is Engaged to Joe ( Phillipis Yusup), Didi (Renia) – her close friend-, questtion if Joe is really Mel’s kind of guy.
Later in the story, Mel finds out that Joe has been going out with another girl all this time. Then, Mel, meets Are ( Bucek Depp), a young artist who writes, own a bookstore,and makes brownies!Are even has a small brownies shop that Mel loves to visit. Are’s artistic attitude and Joe’s betrayal have clearly affected Mel’s life.
Brownies is the first Indonesian movie that was shot using panasonic High Definition cameras, which results in a film that looks as if it’s recorded on standard celluloid film, while reducing production costs.
B. Answer the question based on the text!
1. The genre of the film is.............
2. The names of the actors and actresses are.............
3. The producer of the film is...................
4. The first paragraph is called the introduction or the...............
5. The third paragraph tells us about.............
VI.Metode / Teknik
• Metode : Diskusi
• Teknik : Guided Reading
• Model : Cooperative Learning
VII.Kegiatan Pembelajaran
1.Kegiatan Pendahuluan
• Guru mengucapkan salam,tegur sapa dan mengecek kehadiran siswa.
• Memberikan pertanyaan terkait dengan topik yang akan dibahas.
2. Kegiatan Inti
• Guru menjelaskan tentang review teks dan struktur organisasi dari review teks seperti: orientation,interpretative recount,evaluation,evaluative summation.
• Guru menyuruh siswa membentuk kelompok. Setiap siswa diharuskan mempunyai buku pegangan yang sama.Ini bertujuan agar setiap siswa dapat membaca teks yang sama.
• Guru menyuruh siswa membaca secara pelan teks review yang berjudul “ Brownies”.
• Guru memperhatikan siswa selama siswa membaca dan merespon pertanyaan –pertanyaan siswa seputar teks atau kata-kata didalam teks yang tidak dimengerti siswa.
• Pertama-tama,siswa disuruh membaca teks pada paragraf pertama secara pelan ,kemudian setelah siswa selesai membaca , guru menyuruh siswa membaca teks itu dengan nyaring,secara bergiliran.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mendiskuskan isi teks pada paragraf pertama.
• Guru bertanya kepada siswa tentang isi teks pada paragraf pertama,kemudian siswa menjelaskan isi teks itu.
• Guru menyuruh siswa melanjutkan kembali membaca paragraf 2 dan seterusnya seperti langkah – langkah diatas.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mengidentifikasi teks yang dibaca berdasarkan struktur organisasi dari review teks,seperti orientation,interpretative recount,evalation,evaluative sumation.
3.Kegiatan Penutup
• Mempersilahkan siswa untuk menanyakan hal -hal yang kurang dipahami.
• Menyimpulkan materi pelajaran yang dibahas pada pertemuan tersebut.
• Guru menyuruh siswa kembali pada tempat duduknya masing-masing dan menyuruh siswa mengerjakan soal- soal yang berhubungan dengan teks yang dibaca.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mengumpulkan hasil kerjanya.
• Guru memberi tugas kepada siswa berupa PR membuat daftar kata kerja yang terdapat dalam teks tersebut.
• Guru mengakhiri pelajaran dan mengucapkan salam.
VIII.Sumber Belajar
Buku Look A head 3
IX.Penilaian
• Teknik : Tulis
• Bentuk : Esei
• Rubrik Penilaian.
NO URAIAN SKOR
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. Isi benar,tata bahasa benar,pilihan kata tepat.
Isi benar,tata bahasa kurang tepat,pilihan kata tepat.
Isi benar,tata bahasa salah,pilihan kata kurang tepat.
Isi kurang tepat,tata bahasa salah,pilihan kata salah.
Tidak ada jawaban. 20
15
10
5
0
Pedoman penilaian
Skor Maksimal : 100
Nilai Maksima : l20 x 5 = 100
Nilai Siswa : Skor perolehan
Tasikmalaya, 12 Januari 2011
Mengetahui,
Kepala SMA NEGERI 1 KARANGNUNGGAL Guru Mata Pelajaran
(....................................................) (.........................................................)
(RPP)
Satuan Pendidikan : SMA NEGERI 1 KARANGNUNGGAL
Mata Pelajaran : Bahasa Inggris
Kelas/Semester : XII / 2
Alokasi Waktu : 2 x 45 Menit ( 1 x Pertemuan )
Skill : Reading
I.Standar Kompetensi
Memahami makna teks tulis monolog berbentuk review.
II.Kompetensi Dasar
Merespon makna teks tulis monolog berbentuk review.
III.Indikator
1.Mengidentifikasi berbagai informasi yang ada didalam teks berbetuk review.
2.Mengidentifikasi struktur teks review yang dibaca.
3.Menjawab pertanyaan dari teks berbentuk review.
IV.Tujuan Pembelajaran
1.Siswa dapat mengidentifikasi berbagai informasi dari teks berbetuk review.
2.Siswa dapat mengidentifikasi struktur teks review yang dibaca.
3.Siswa dapat menjawab pertanyaan dari teks berbentuk review.
V.Materi P embelajaran
A.Read the text carefully !
Brownies
A bite of sweet cake, a bite of love story.
Another Indonesian romantic drama feature film by a young and talented director,Hanung Bramantyo, will soon be released this year. Fans of Marcella Zalianty,Bucek Depp,and Arie U. Kuncoro will bw able to see their idols acting in a movie titled Brownies. The film is produced by SinemArt, which also produced ‘Mengejar matahari’’.
The theme is simple; it’s about love. Love with its bittersweet story becomes the highlight that enriches the movie plot. The reason is quite obvious: A love theme always attarct more people to come eo the cinema.
Mel ( Maecella zalianty), a copywriter in a advertising agency, has a life that’s focused on her job. Althought Mel is Engaged to Joe ( Phillipis Yusup), Didi (Renia) – her close friend-, questtion if Joe is really Mel’s kind of guy.
Later in the story, Mel finds out that Joe has been going out with another girl all this time. Then, Mel, meets Are ( Bucek Depp), a young artist who writes, own a bookstore,and makes brownies!Are even has a small brownies shop that Mel loves to visit. Are’s artistic attitude and Joe’s betrayal have clearly affected Mel’s life.
Brownies is the first Indonesian movie that was shot using panasonic High Definition cameras, which results in a film that looks as if it’s recorded on standard celluloid film, while reducing production costs.
B. Answer the question based on the text!
1. The genre of the film is.............
2. The names of the actors and actresses are.............
3. The producer of the film is...................
4. The first paragraph is called the introduction or the...............
5. The third paragraph tells us about.............
VI.Metode / Teknik
• Metode : Diskusi
• Teknik : Guided Reading
• Model : Cooperative Learning
VII.Kegiatan Pembelajaran
1.Kegiatan Pendahuluan
• Guru mengucapkan salam,tegur sapa dan mengecek kehadiran siswa.
• Memberikan pertanyaan terkait dengan topik yang akan dibahas.
2. Kegiatan Inti
• Guru menjelaskan tentang review teks dan struktur organisasi dari review teks seperti: orientation,interpretative recount,evaluation,evaluative summation.
• Guru menyuruh siswa membentuk kelompok. Setiap siswa diharuskan mempunyai buku pegangan yang sama.Ini bertujuan agar setiap siswa dapat membaca teks yang sama.
• Guru menyuruh siswa membaca secara pelan teks review yang berjudul “ Brownies”.
• Guru memperhatikan siswa selama siswa membaca dan merespon pertanyaan –pertanyaan siswa seputar teks atau kata-kata didalam teks yang tidak dimengerti siswa.
• Pertama-tama,siswa disuruh membaca teks pada paragraf pertama secara pelan ,kemudian setelah siswa selesai membaca , guru menyuruh siswa membaca teks itu dengan nyaring,secara bergiliran.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mendiskuskan isi teks pada paragraf pertama.
• Guru bertanya kepada siswa tentang isi teks pada paragraf pertama,kemudian siswa menjelaskan isi teks itu.
• Guru menyuruh siswa melanjutkan kembali membaca paragraf 2 dan seterusnya seperti langkah – langkah diatas.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mengidentifikasi teks yang dibaca berdasarkan struktur organisasi dari review teks,seperti orientation,interpretative recount,evalation,evaluative sumation.
3.Kegiatan Penutup
• Mempersilahkan siswa untuk menanyakan hal -hal yang kurang dipahami.
• Menyimpulkan materi pelajaran yang dibahas pada pertemuan tersebut.
• Guru menyuruh siswa kembali pada tempat duduknya masing-masing dan menyuruh siswa mengerjakan soal- soal yang berhubungan dengan teks yang dibaca.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mengumpulkan hasil kerjanya.
• Guru memberi tugas kepada siswa berupa PR membuat daftar kata kerja yang terdapat dalam teks tersebut.
• Guru mengakhiri pelajaran dan mengucapkan salam.
VIII.Sumber Belajar
Buku Look A head 3
IX.Penilaian
• Teknik : Tulis
• Bentuk : Esei
• Rubrik Penilaian.
NO URAIAN SKOR
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. Isi benar,tata bahasa benar,pilihan kata tepat.
Isi benar,tata bahasa kurang tepat,pilihan kata tepat.
Isi benar,tata bahasa salah,pilihan kata kurang tepat.
Isi kurang tepat,tata bahasa salah,pilihan kata salah.
Tidak ada jawaban. 20
15
10
5
0
Pedoman penilaian
Skor Maksimal : 100
Nilai Maksima : l20 x 5 = 100
Nilai Siswa : Skor perolehan
Tasikmalaya, 12 Januari 2011
Mengetahui,
Kepala SMA NEGERI 1 KARANGNUNGGAL Guru Mata Pelajaran
(....................................................) (.........................................................)
CONTOH RPP (TUGAS MATAKULIAH TEFL)
RENCANA PELAKSANAAN PEMBELAJARAN
(RPP)
Satuan Pendidikan : SMP NEGERI .... TASIKMALAYA
Mata Pelajaran : Bahasa Inggris
Kelas/Semester : VII/2
Alokasi Waktu : 2 x 45 menit ( 1 X Pertemuan)
Skill : Reading
I. Standar Kompetensi
Memahami makna teks tulis fungsional berbentuk narrative.
II. Kompetensi Dasar
Merespon makna dalam teks tulis fungsional berbentuk narrative dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa tulis secara akurat,lancar dan berterima.
III. Indikator
1. Memahami bacaan dan menjawab pertanyaan dari bacaan.
2. Mengidentifikasi berbagai informasi didalam teks.
3. Menyusun cerita berdasarkan gambar yang diberikan.
4. Mengidentifikasi struktur organisasi teks yang dibaca.
IV. Tujuan Pmbelajaran
1. Siswa dapat memahami bacaan dan menjawab pertanyaan dari bacaan.
2. Siswa dapat mengidentifikasi berbagai informasi yang ada di dalam teks.
3. Siswa dapat menyusun cerita berdasarkan gambar yang diberikan.
4. Siswa dapat mengidentifikasi struktur organisasi teks yang dibaca.
V. Materi Pembelajaran
A.Read the text and look at the pictures below !
Calon Arang,A Balinese Story
There are as many texts as the pictures.Arrange the texts according to the pictures and you will have the story of Calon arang!
1). Calon arang had a daughter.Her name was Ratna Mangali.She was very beautiful.Yet nobody wanted to marry her because they were afraid of her mother.People began to talk about Ratna Mangali.
2). Long,long time ago,in Girah Village, there live an old woman.Her name was Calon arang.She was a very powerful woman.She had magical power.
3). The king sent his best soldier to arrest Calon arang but they failed.
4). Calon arang did not like people talking about her daughter.She loved Ratna Mangali very much.When she heard people talking her daughter ,she got angry.She cursed the village.people get ill and died.
5).Then the king called Mpu Baradah.The king asked for his help.
6). One day,Mpu Bahula asked Ratna Mangali to steal her mother’s magic book.When Calon arang was asleep,Ratna Mangali stole her mother’s magic book and gave it to her husband.
7).Mpu Baradah sent his student,Mpi Bahula ti Girah Village.
8). Then Mpu Bahula gave the book to Mpu Baradah.
9). Mpu Baradah told Mpu Bahula to propose Rana Mangali.
10). After he knew Calon arang’s magic secret,Mpu Baradah came to Girah Village.Calon arang and Mpu baradah had a fight.Calon arang lost the fight because she did not have her magical book anymore.that was the end of Calon arang.
11). Calon arang was verry happy when Mpu Bahula proposed Ratna Mangali.She know that people would not talk about her daughter anymore.She gave her daughter a big wedding party.
12). Story about Calon arang reached the king.
B. Answer the question based on the text!
1. who is Calonarang ?
2. Why did the king sent his best soldier to arrest Calonarang ?
3. What did Mpu Bahula ask to ratna Mangali ?
4.When did Ratna Mangali steal her mother’s magic book ?
5. Why did Calonarang loose the fight ?
V. Metode/Teknik.
• Metode : Diskusi
• Teknik : Guided Reading
• Model : Cooperative Learning
VII. Kegiatan Pembelajaran
1. Kegiatan Pendahuluan
• Guru mengucapkan salam,tegur sapa dan mengecek kehadiran siswa.
• Memberikan pertanyaan terkait dengan topik yang akan dibahas.
2. Kegiatan Inti
• Guru menjelaskan tentang narrative teks dan struktur organisasi dari narrative teks seperti: orientation,complication,resolution dan coda.
• Guru menyuruh siswa membentuk kelompok. Setiap siswa diharuskan mempunyai buku pegangan yang sama..Ini bertujuan agar setiap siswa dapat membaca teks yang sama.
• Guru menyuruh siswa membaca secara pelan teks yang masih acak yang ada didalam buku..
• Guru memperhatikan siswa selama siswa membaca dan merespon pertanyaan –pertanyaan siswa seputar teks atau kata-kata dalam teks yang tidak dimengerti siswa.
• Pertama-tama,siswa disuruh membaca teks pada nomor 1secara pelan ,kemudian setelah selesai , guru menyuruh siswa membaca teks itu dengan nyaring,secara bergiliran.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mendiskuskan isi teks itu.
• Guru bertanya kepada siswa tentang isi bacaan nomor 1,kemudian siswa menjelaskan isi bacaan itu.
• Siswa disuruh mencocokan isi bacaan itu dengan gambar yang berhubungan dengan cerita Calon Arang.
• Guru menyuruh siswa melanjutkan kembali membaca nomor 2 dan seterusnya seperti langkah – langkah diatas.
• Guru menyuruh siswa menyusun teks yang masih acak menjadi sebuah cerita.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mengidentifikasi teks yang telah mereka susun, berdasarkan struktur organisasi dari narative teks,seperti orientation,complication, resolution dan coda.
3.Kegiatan Penutup
• Mempersilahkan siswa untuk menanyakan hal -hal yang kurang dipahami.
• Menyimpulkan materi pelajaran yang dibahas pada pertemuan tersebut.
• Guru menyuruh siswa kembali pada tempat duduknya masing-masing dan menyuruh siswa mengerjakan soal- soal yang berhubungan dengan teks yang dibaca.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mengumpulkan hasil kerjanya.
• Guru Memberi tugas kepada siswa berupa PR membuat daftar kata kerja yang terdapat dalam teks tersebut.
• Guru mengakhiri pelajaran dan mengucapkan salam.
VIII. Sumber Belajar
• LKS (Lembar kerja siswa) kelas VII semester 2
• Gambar – gambar seputar cerita Calon Arang,A Balinse Story
IX. Penilaian
• Teknik : Tulis
• Bentuk :Esei
• Rubrik Penilaian.
NO URAIAN SKOR
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. Isi benar,tata bahasa benar,pilihan kata tepat.
Isi benar,tata bahasa kurang tepat,pilihan kata tepat.
Isi benar,tata bahasa salah,pilihan kata kurang tepat.
Isi kurang tepat,tata bahasa salah,pilihan kata salah.
Tidak ada jawaban. 20
15
10
5
0
Pedoman penilaian
Skor Maksimal : 100
Nilai Maksimal : 20 x 5 = 100
Nilai Siswa = Skor perolehan
Tasikmalaya, 10 Oktober 2010
Mengetahui,
Kepala SMP NEGERI ..... TASIKMALAYA Guru Mata Pelajaran
(....................................................) (............................................)
(RPP)
Satuan Pendidikan : SMP NEGERI .... TASIKMALAYA
Mata Pelajaran : Bahasa Inggris
Kelas/Semester : VII/2
Alokasi Waktu : 2 x 45 menit ( 1 X Pertemuan)
Skill : Reading
I. Standar Kompetensi
Memahami makna teks tulis fungsional berbentuk narrative.
II. Kompetensi Dasar
Merespon makna dalam teks tulis fungsional berbentuk narrative dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa tulis secara akurat,lancar dan berterima.
III. Indikator
1. Memahami bacaan dan menjawab pertanyaan dari bacaan.
2. Mengidentifikasi berbagai informasi didalam teks.
3. Menyusun cerita berdasarkan gambar yang diberikan.
4. Mengidentifikasi struktur organisasi teks yang dibaca.
IV. Tujuan Pmbelajaran
1. Siswa dapat memahami bacaan dan menjawab pertanyaan dari bacaan.
2. Siswa dapat mengidentifikasi berbagai informasi yang ada di dalam teks.
3. Siswa dapat menyusun cerita berdasarkan gambar yang diberikan.
4. Siswa dapat mengidentifikasi struktur organisasi teks yang dibaca.
V. Materi Pembelajaran
A.Read the text and look at the pictures below !
Calon Arang,A Balinese Story
There are as many texts as the pictures.Arrange the texts according to the pictures and you will have the story of Calon arang!
1). Calon arang had a daughter.Her name was Ratna Mangali.She was very beautiful.Yet nobody wanted to marry her because they were afraid of her mother.People began to talk about Ratna Mangali.
2). Long,long time ago,in Girah Village, there live an old woman.Her name was Calon arang.She was a very powerful woman.She had magical power.
3). The king sent his best soldier to arrest Calon arang but they failed.
4). Calon arang did not like people talking about her daughter.She loved Ratna Mangali very much.When she heard people talking her daughter ,she got angry.She cursed the village.people get ill and died.
5).Then the king called Mpu Baradah.The king asked for his help.
6). One day,Mpu Bahula asked Ratna Mangali to steal her mother’s magic book.When Calon arang was asleep,Ratna Mangali stole her mother’s magic book and gave it to her husband.
7).Mpu Baradah sent his student,Mpi Bahula ti Girah Village.
8). Then Mpu Bahula gave the book to Mpu Baradah.
9). Mpu Baradah told Mpu Bahula to propose Rana Mangali.
10). After he knew Calon arang’s magic secret,Mpu Baradah came to Girah Village.Calon arang and Mpu baradah had a fight.Calon arang lost the fight because she did not have her magical book anymore.that was the end of Calon arang.
11). Calon arang was verry happy when Mpu Bahula proposed Ratna Mangali.She know that people would not talk about her daughter anymore.She gave her daughter a big wedding party.
12). Story about Calon arang reached the king.
B. Answer the question based on the text!
1. who is Calonarang ?
2. Why did the king sent his best soldier to arrest Calonarang ?
3. What did Mpu Bahula ask to ratna Mangali ?
4.When did Ratna Mangali steal her mother’s magic book ?
5. Why did Calonarang loose the fight ?
V. Metode/Teknik.
• Metode : Diskusi
• Teknik : Guided Reading
• Model : Cooperative Learning
VII. Kegiatan Pembelajaran
1. Kegiatan Pendahuluan
• Guru mengucapkan salam,tegur sapa dan mengecek kehadiran siswa.
• Memberikan pertanyaan terkait dengan topik yang akan dibahas.
2. Kegiatan Inti
• Guru menjelaskan tentang narrative teks dan struktur organisasi dari narrative teks seperti: orientation,complication,resolution dan coda.
• Guru menyuruh siswa membentuk kelompok. Setiap siswa diharuskan mempunyai buku pegangan yang sama..Ini bertujuan agar setiap siswa dapat membaca teks yang sama.
• Guru menyuruh siswa membaca secara pelan teks yang masih acak yang ada didalam buku..
• Guru memperhatikan siswa selama siswa membaca dan merespon pertanyaan –pertanyaan siswa seputar teks atau kata-kata dalam teks yang tidak dimengerti siswa.
• Pertama-tama,siswa disuruh membaca teks pada nomor 1secara pelan ,kemudian setelah selesai , guru menyuruh siswa membaca teks itu dengan nyaring,secara bergiliran.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mendiskuskan isi teks itu.
• Guru bertanya kepada siswa tentang isi bacaan nomor 1,kemudian siswa menjelaskan isi bacaan itu.
• Siswa disuruh mencocokan isi bacaan itu dengan gambar yang berhubungan dengan cerita Calon Arang.
• Guru menyuruh siswa melanjutkan kembali membaca nomor 2 dan seterusnya seperti langkah – langkah diatas.
• Guru menyuruh siswa menyusun teks yang masih acak menjadi sebuah cerita.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mengidentifikasi teks yang telah mereka susun, berdasarkan struktur organisasi dari narative teks,seperti orientation,complication, resolution dan coda.
3.Kegiatan Penutup
• Mempersilahkan siswa untuk menanyakan hal -hal yang kurang dipahami.
• Menyimpulkan materi pelajaran yang dibahas pada pertemuan tersebut.
• Guru menyuruh siswa kembali pada tempat duduknya masing-masing dan menyuruh siswa mengerjakan soal- soal yang berhubungan dengan teks yang dibaca.
• Guru menyuruh siswa mengumpulkan hasil kerjanya.
• Guru Memberi tugas kepada siswa berupa PR membuat daftar kata kerja yang terdapat dalam teks tersebut.
• Guru mengakhiri pelajaran dan mengucapkan salam.
VIII. Sumber Belajar
• LKS (Lembar kerja siswa) kelas VII semester 2
• Gambar – gambar seputar cerita Calon Arang,A Balinse Story
IX. Penilaian
• Teknik : Tulis
• Bentuk :Esei
• Rubrik Penilaian.
NO URAIAN SKOR
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. Isi benar,tata bahasa benar,pilihan kata tepat.
Isi benar,tata bahasa kurang tepat,pilihan kata tepat.
Isi benar,tata bahasa salah,pilihan kata kurang tepat.
Isi kurang tepat,tata bahasa salah,pilihan kata salah.
Tidak ada jawaban. 20
15
10
5
0
Pedoman penilaian
Skor Maksimal : 100
Nilai Maksimal : 20 x 5 = 100
Nilai Siswa = Skor perolehan
Tasikmalaya, 10 Oktober 2010
Mengetahui,
Kepala SMP NEGERI ..... TASIKMALAYA Guru Mata Pelajaran
(....................................................) (............................................)
MODALITY (TUGAS MATA KULIAH SEMANTICS)
PREFACE
All price due to Allah SWT, by the grace of him, this working paper, entitled “MODALITY” has been finished.
Semantics is generally defined as the study of meaning. Certain of the meaning (or senses) can be distinguished by the technique of substituting other words in the same context and enquiring wether the resulting sentences are equivalent.
Modality is expressed in different ways by different languages. Modality can be expressed via grammaticized element such as auxiliary verbs or verbs ending, via indirect mean such as a prepositional phrase or a clause, or in other ways, such as via adverbs.
Tasikmalaya, October 2010
The writter
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
INTRODUCTION
A. Background 1
B. Set of problem 1
MODALITY
A. Necessity and Possibility 2
B. Epistemic modality and Factivity 2
C. Tense as a Modality 3
D. Deontic Modality 5
E. Obligation,Permission,Prohibition, and Exemtion. 7
F. A Tentative synthesis. 8
CONCLUSION 10
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
A. Background
In semiotics a modality is a particular way in which the information is to be encoded for presentation to humans, I, e, to the type of sign and to the status of reality ascribed to or claimed by a sign, text or genre. It is more closely associated with the semiotics of Charles pierce (1839-1914) than Saussure (1857-1913) because meaning is conceived as an effect of a set of sign. In the peircean model, a reference is made to an object hen the sign (or representamen ) is interpreted recursively by another sign (which becomes its interpretant), a conception of meaning that does in fact imply a classification of sign types.
In linguistics. Modality refers to the attitude of the speaker to action indicated by a verb, especially with regard to necessity / desirability or probability. Modality can be expressed lexically or grammatically. Grammatical modality may be expressed either analytically with the use of separate word-modals-or morphologically using inflection. Morphological expression of modality is called mood.
Modal have a wide variety of interpretation which depend not only upon the particular modal used, but also upon where the modal occurs in a sentence, the meaning of sentence independent of the modal, the conversational context, and a variety of other factors. For example, the interpretation of an English sentence containing the modal ‘must’ can be that of a statement of inference or knowledge (roughly, epistemic) or a statement of how something ought to be (roughly, deontic).
B. Set Of Problem
1. What is necessity and possibility
2. What is epistemic modality and factivity
3. How we learn tense as a modality
4. What is a deontic modality
5. What is obligation, permission, prohibition and exemtion
6. What is tentative syntetis
Modality
A. Necessity and possibility
Necessity and possibility are the central nations of traditional modal logic; and they are related, like universal and existential quantification (cf. 6. 3), in terms of negation. If p is necessarily true, then its negation, ˜p, cannot possibly be true; and if p is possibly true; then its negation is not necessarily true.
The sentences containing such modal *verb as’ must’ and may’ are ambiguous; and furthermore that their ambiguity is not satisfactorily accounted for by saying that each of the modal verb happens to have two ore more meaning. There is an intuitively obvious connexion, on the one hand, between the nations of necessity and obligation, which are relevant to the semantics analysis of sentence containing ‘must’, and, on the other, between the nation of possibility and permission, which are relevant to the semantics analysis of sentences containing ‘may. Moreover, the ambiguity found in English sentences containing ‘must’ and ‘may’ is also found, in comparable sentences, in other languages.
Two other kind of necessity and possibility are recognized and formalized, in various way, by logicians: epistemic*and deontic*. The significance of these term will be explained presently. But here it may be simply mentioned that it is epistemic necessity that is involved in (15) and deontic necessity in (16).epistemic necessity is intuitively closer to alethic necessity than deontic necessity is.
B. Epistemic modality and factifity
Main article: epistemic modality
Epistemic modals are used to indicate the possibility or necessity of some piece of knowledge. In the epistemic use, modals can be interpreted as indicating inference or some other process of reasoning involved in coming ti the conclusion stated in the sentence containing the modal. However, epistemic modals do not necessarily require inference, reasoning, or evidence. One effect of using an epistemic modal (as opposed to not using one) is a general weakening of the speaker’s commitment, or whether the weakening is a by-product of some other aspect of the modals meaning.
Whereas epistemology is concerned with the nature and source of knowledge, epistemic logic deals with the logical structure of statement which assert or imply that a particular proposition, or set of propositions, is known or believed.
Factivity is what we will call non-factivity and contra-factifity. They use of a non-factive*predicator, like ‘believe’ or ‘think’, commits the speaker to neither the truth nor the falsity of the proposition expressed by its complement clause in such statement as he believes/ think that Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland.
The most obvious examples of contra-factive utterances (and they are recognized as such in traditional grammer) are wishes*and so-called unreal* (or counter-factual) conditionals (which past-time reference), such as
(4) I wish he had been to paris
And
(5) if he had been to paris, he would have visited Montmartre.
Unreal conditional statement, like (5), contrast with so-called real* conditional statement such as
(8) if he went to paris, he visited Montmartre,
Which (construed in the sense in which it is not equivalent to whenever he went to paris, he visited montmartre) is neither factive nor contra-factive, but non-factive.
In principle, two kinds of epistemic modality can be distinguished: objective*and subjective*. This is not a distinction that can be drawn sharply I the everyday use of language; and its epistemological justification is, to say the least, uncertain. Its also difficult to draw a sharp distinction between what we are calling objective epistemic modality and alethic modality; both of them are subsumed by carnap’s nation of logical probability.
The important point is that objective epistemic modality is in principle quantifiable on a scale whose extremes are necessity and impossibility; and different language-system may well grammaticalize or lexicalige distinction along this scale in terms of more of fewer degrees.
There is somerevidence to suggest that, in English at least, epistemic mofality is possibility-based. The following utterances containing may or can are all acceptable as having either subjective or objective epistemic modality:
It may be raining
It may not be raining
It can’t be raining
It can’t not be raining (or it cannot but be raining)
And differ from another in that the former means “it is possible that it is not raining “ and the letter “it is not possible that it is raining”. Means (it is not possible that it is not raining).
C. Tense as modality
Tense-logic is a branch of modal logic which extend propositional calculus by in traducing into the system a set of tense-operators whose function and interpretation is similar t that of the operators of logical necessity and possibility in standard modal logic.
Every utterance establishes its own spatiotemporal point of reference the zero=point of the deictic system-in relation to which the entities, event and states-of-affairs referred to by the speaker may be identified.
1. It was raining
2. It will bw raining
Under this analysis of the meaning of (1) and (2), we have assigned the temporal reference or past and future tense, like objective epistemic modality, to the topic, rather than the pharastic . the distinction that we are operating with (which we have taken from hare and, in part, reinterpreted) is one that is not drawn in standard systems of logic.
What Augustine calls the “present of past things” can be described, in terms that linguists have often used in their discussion of tense, as a past embedded in a present. The sematic plausibility of this interpretation of tense is revealed in such utterances as the following:
It is a fact (in w) that is was raining(in w)
It is a fact (in w) that it will be raining(in w)
These sentence may not be exactly equivalent to ‘it was raining’ and ‘it will be raining’, but they do hold constant the present and the past or future point of reference; and they help us to see what is meant by “a present of past things” and “a present of future things”.
More commonly, however, in utterances in which the reference of is past in relation to t and the reference of t is future in relation to to, will be interpreted intensionally, rather than extantionaly; not as a word of fact and objective possibilities, but as a world that is composed of subjective expectations, predictions, and intentions. Jhon was coming tomorrow, under an intentional interpretation of w, might be held to have roughly the same meaning (as an utterance, thought not as a sentence) as jhon said that he as/ would be coming tomorrow, jhon intended coming tomorrow, I thought / was told that jhon was/ would be coming tomorrow, ect.
This distinction between an international and an extentional interpretation of futurity can also be drawn in relation to sentences like, it will be raining (tomorrow)’, ever since aristotle first raised the question, the factuality of statement descriptive, or predictive, of future events, or states-of-affairs, has been philosophically controversial and many philosophers would deny that we can make statement about the future at all, on the grounds that we cannot have knowledge, but only beliefs, about future world-states.
That there is a connexion is perhaps obvious enough, independently of any arguments that might be based upon the grammatical structure of particular language. But there is, in fact, ample linguistic evidence. What is conventionally regarded as the future tense (in languages that are said to have a future tense)is rarely if ever, used solely for marking statement or prediction, or posing and asking factual question, about the future. It is also used in a wider or narrower range of non-factive utterances involving supposition, inference, wish, intention and desire. Furthermore, the future, non-future distinction is frequently neutralized in subordinate or negative clauses, in participles and nominalization, in association with all mood othr than the indicative, and in various other constructions: the fact would suggest that the opposition of the future to the present is less central the structure of the languages than is the opposition of tge past to the present (which is, in any case, an opposition that is more widely grammaticalized throughout the language of the world ). So too would the fact that the so-called future tense is in many languages constructed according to different pattern of formation than is the past or the present tense.
In many languages throughout the world, the nation of possibility and obligation are associated with the same non-factive, or subjunctive, mood, and this is commonly also the mood of prediction, supposition, intention, and desire, as it is in many of the indo-european languages.
D. Deontic modality
The term deontic (from the greek deon : what is binding) is now quite widely used by philosophers to refer to a particular branch or extention of modal logic: the modal logic of obligation and permission. There are certain obvious differences between alethic and epistemic necessity, on the one hand, and what we might call denotic necessity., on the other. Logical and epistemic necessity, as we have seen, have to do with the truth of propositions, deontic modality is concered with the necessity or possibility of act performed by morally responsible agent.
Deontic modals are those that indicate how the world ought to be, according to the certain norms, expectations, speaker desire, etc. in other world, deontic uses indicate that the state of the world (where world is loosely defined here in terms of the circumstances surrounding the use of the modal) does not met some standard or ideal, whether yhat standard be social (such as laws) personal (desires), etc. the sentences containing the deontic modal generally indicates some action that would so that it becomes closer to the standard/ ideal.
Deontic modality is modality that connotes the speaker’s
• Degree of requirement of
• Desire for, or
• Commitment to the realization of.
The proposition expressed by the utterance
Example
• You may go at four o’clock
• All elections shall take place on schedule
A third characteristic of deontically modalized utterances which differentiates them, or appears to differentiate them, from logically and epistemically modalized utterance is that deontic necessary typically proceeds, or derives, from some sorce or couse.
Philosophers, in their discussion of deontic modality, have been mainly concerned wihtnthe notions of moral obligations, duty and right conduct.
The origin of deontic modality, it has often been suggested, is to be sought in the desiderative and instrumental function of language: that is to say, in yhe use of language, on the one hand, to express or indicate wants and desires and, on the other to get thing done by imposing one’s will on other agents.
Language, as the child soon realizes, is not only o instrument that he can use in other to impose his will onother and get them to do what he want.
The range of utterances whereby parents and those in authority over him regulate the behavior of the child and inculcate in him (if they are successful) a set of moral and social norms and patterns of behavior includes not only directivest, but also statement. The parent can say, not only
Don’t tell lies
But also
It’s wrong to tell lies
The difference between, as they would normally be understood, is that is (or may be) a directive, they utterance of which creates or bring intro existence , a certain obligation, whereas is a deontic statement to the effct that the obligation exist and the word wrong in specifies, in a fairly general way, the nature of this obligation.
Most of the diectivesthat are issued I everyday social interaction do not have as their function the creation of an obligation to behave in a certain wey or no refrain from behaving in a certain well for all time or on all occasions.
An obligation may also be restricted explicitly by means of an adverb or an adverbial clause of phrase of time, and this adverb or adverbial expression may have either singular or generic reference, and it may refer to either a point or period of time. For example, in turn up the thermostat when you get home the expression.’when you get home’ may refer to same single individual event of home-coming and it would normally, thought not necessarily be understood in this way, if it were supplemented with a phrase like ‘this evening’. But the same expression might also be employed with generic reference, in which case it would be more or less equipalent to ‘whenever you get home’. In certain language this difference between singular and generic temporal reference will e grammaticalized in terms of the category of aspect.
The important point is that both the person imposing the obligation and the person upon whom it is imposecd will normally be aware of what the implicit “immeiately” means on particular occasion and that is sufficient. Henceforth, e shall be concerned with directives which impose upon those to whom they are addressed the obligation to carry out immediately the act or course of action that is prescribed and we will refer to them whether they are conditional or unconditional, as temporally unrestricted directives.
E. Obligation, permission, prohibition, and exemtion
We have so far discussed deontic utterances both directives and statements in terms of the notion of obligation and we have seen that thereis least an intuitive relationship, which we have yet to explicate, between utterances such as
1. Open the door
2. Don’t open the door
Construed as commands and prohitions respectively, and statements to the effect that there exist an obligation to act or to refrain from acting in certain way. But we must nowbring in the notion of permission, which is related to possibility in the same way that obligation is related to necessity.
But first let us consider how (1) and (2) differ from,and how they are related to the following:
3. You must open the door
4. You musn’t open the door
5. You may open the door
6. You needn’t/ don’t have to open the door.
One important difference is that, whereas (1) and (2), would normally be uttered and taken as directives,(3)-(6) may be interpreted either as directives (e.g., as meaning “l hereby impose upon you the obligation to open the door”) or as statement (e.g as meaning “l hereby assert that you are obliged( by some unspecified authority) to open the the door”). In the either case it is an unqualified act of telling that is involved: and this is true also of (1) and (2). We cannot therefore account for the difference between the two interpretations in terms of the qualification of the l-say-so component. Furthermore, since(3)-(6) can be used as statements we must, for this interpretation at least, allow for their having an unqualified it is so tropic.
The fact that in many languages, and not only in english, the same sentences may be used either to report mands or to assert that an obligation exist is of considerable importance. It lends support to the view, put forward above, that our understanding of deontic statements is based upon an ontogenetically prior understanding of the illocutionary force of mands.
It is worth noting also that commands and demands may be reported or transmitted by means of imperative sentences with an explicit acknowledgment of their sourse:
7. Come in and have your bath: mummy says so
In the situations in which 7 would normally be uttered, it would be more or less equivalent to
8. You have got to come in and have your bath: mummy says so
9. Mummy says you have got to come in and have your bath.
And in all three cases the person making the utterance would normally be understood to be transmitting a mand from someone whose authority to create an obligation he himself acknowledges. Situation of this kind we can think of as being models for the child’s understanding of the meaning of deontic statements.
Permission as we saw above, is related to obligation in standard systems of deontic logic in the same way that possibility is related t necessity. But a distinction can be drawn, intuitively at least between a passive or weaker sense of permission and an active, or stronger,sense. A course of action is permissible in the weak sense if, and only if, it is not explicity prohibited. Under this interpretation of permission, every possible course of action is the either permissible or prohibited, and permission is interdefinable with obligation.
As positive commands and demands are related to prohibiton, so permissions are related to what we will call exemtions. When we issue a permission, by means of a permission-granting utterance e.g you may open the door, we either cancel a pre-existing prohibition or determine the deontic status of some action whose deontic status was previously undetermined. When we issue an exemtion-granting utterance, for example you needn’t open the door, we cancel a pre-existing obligation or determine, by fiat, a deontically undetermined action.
The fisrt poin that must be made in this connexion is that, although imperative sentences are characteristcally ussed to issue mands, they may also be employed,in certain situations, to grant permission. For example, when we say Come in ! in response to a knock on the door, we are not normally understood to be issuing a command (or even a request), but to be granting to the person who has knocked permission to enter room; and his knock is, by convention, taken to be equivalent to a request for our permission; as meaning “ May l come in?”.
F. A Tentative Synthesis
It is a widely held view among linguists that there is a fundamental difference between the epistemic and the deontic uses of ‘may’ or ‘can’ and ‘must’ in english; and this difference has been accounted for in some recent transformational analyses by classifying the epistemic modal verb as intransitive and the deontic modals as transitive. The so-called intransitive modals, under this analysis of their meaning and function, would have a nominalized sentential subject; and the transitive modals would have as their subject an expression referring to the person who is the source of the obligation or permission and as their object a nominalized sentence referring to what is obligatory or permissible. Rougly speaking, under this analysis, ‘’jhon may come in’’ would mean “ that jhon will come in is possible” with the intransitive “may” and, under the permission-granting interpretation,” l make it possible that jhon will come in” with the transitive “may”.
There are several point that may be in relation to this analysis.First of all,like most treatments of epistemic modality it fails to acount for the diference between a subjective and an objective interpretation or epistemic modality. By comparing an objectively modalized epistemic interpretation with a permission – granting deontic interpretation it makes the transitive – intransitive distinction look semantically more plausible than it is. As soon as we gloss the allegedly intransitive sentence as “ i think – it – possible that Jhon will come in “ we see that there can be,inprinciple, a transitive analysis of epistemic modality.A|The transitive analysis of Jhon may come in , interpreted as a deontic statement,is on the other hand highly implausible: “ Jhon makes – it – possible that Jhon come in” is semantically inapppropriate, and such analyses as “ for Jhon it is possible that Jhon will come in”, event if they are interpretable in the appropriate way,depend upon some rather questionable syntactic proseses and an eccentric notion of what it mean for an expression to be the subject of a transitive verb.
A second general criticsm that can be made of the tranformasional,analysis of epistemic and deontic sentences outlined above is that it says nothing about the difference in the way in which we have interpret the nominalized sentence in the two different syntactic environments.One of the points that was made at the begining of this section was that deontic necessity and possibility are usually understood to originate in some casual source. If someone is obliged or permited to carry out some source of action, it is generally,though not necesserily, asumed that some person or insituation has created the obligation or permission.
If we look at the matter in this way , we can see way the same modal verbs and adjectives are used,in many languages, in what appear to be, and are often classified as,diffferent senses : the ‘ may’ of permission , the ‘ may’ of alethic possibility etc,in so far as they can be distinguished .In term of conceptual model within which the possibility or necessity of something being so is understood by analogy with our understanding of the deontic notions of granting permission and imposing obligation.
Conclusion
After we studied all about modality in the previous chapter, we can conclude it to some points.
The definition of modality in semiotics is a parcicular way in which the infomation is to be encoded for presentstion to humans, to the type of sign and to the status of reality ascribed to or climed by a sign text or genre. And the definition of modality in linguistic,modality refers to the attitude of the speaker.
The kind of modality is necessiti and possibility,epistemic modality and factivity,tense as a modality,deontic modality,obligation,permission,prohibition,exemption, a tentative synthesis.
Bibliography
Linguistic modality – Wikipedia,the free encyclopedia.
http: // www.sil.org./lingualinks/contents,htm.
Lyon,Jhon.(1978).Semantics.London and Newyork.Cambridge U
All price due to Allah SWT, by the grace of him, this working paper, entitled “MODALITY” has been finished.
Semantics is generally defined as the study of meaning. Certain of the meaning (or senses) can be distinguished by the technique of substituting other words in the same context and enquiring wether the resulting sentences are equivalent.
Modality is expressed in different ways by different languages. Modality can be expressed via grammaticized element such as auxiliary verbs or verbs ending, via indirect mean such as a prepositional phrase or a clause, or in other ways, such as via adverbs.
Tasikmalaya, October 2010
The writter
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
INTRODUCTION
A. Background 1
B. Set of problem 1
MODALITY
A. Necessity and Possibility 2
B. Epistemic modality and Factivity 2
C. Tense as a Modality 3
D. Deontic Modality 5
E. Obligation,Permission,Prohibition, and Exemtion. 7
F. A Tentative synthesis. 8
CONCLUSION 10
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
A. Background
In semiotics a modality is a particular way in which the information is to be encoded for presentation to humans, I, e, to the type of sign and to the status of reality ascribed to or claimed by a sign, text or genre. It is more closely associated with the semiotics of Charles pierce (1839-1914) than Saussure (1857-1913) because meaning is conceived as an effect of a set of sign. In the peircean model, a reference is made to an object hen the sign (or representamen ) is interpreted recursively by another sign (which becomes its interpretant), a conception of meaning that does in fact imply a classification of sign types.
In linguistics. Modality refers to the attitude of the speaker to action indicated by a verb, especially with regard to necessity / desirability or probability. Modality can be expressed lexically or grammatically. Grammatical modality may be expressed either analytically with the use of separate word-modals-or morphologically using inflection. Morphological expression of modality is called mood.
Modal have a wide variety of interpretation which depend not only upon the particular modal used, but also upon where the modal occurs in a sentence, the meaning of sentence independent of the modal, the conversational context, and a variety of other factors. For example, the interpretation of an English sentence containing the modal ‘must’ can be that of a statement of inference or knowledge (roughly, epistemic) or a statement of how something ought to be (roughly, deontic).
B. Set Of Problem
1. What is necessity and possibility
2. What is epistemic modality and factivity
3. How we learn tense as a modality
4. What is a deontic modality
5. What is obligation, permission, prohibition and exemtion
6. What is tentative syntetis
Modality
A. Necessity and possibility
Necessity and possibility are the central nations of traditional modal logic; and they are related, like universal and existential quantification (cf. 6. 3), in terms of negation. If p is necessarily true, then its negation, ˜p, cannot possibly be true; and if p is possibly true; then its negation is not necessarily true.
The sentences containing such modal *verb as’ must’ and may’ are ambiguous; and furthermore that their ambiguity is not satisfactorily accounted for by saying that each of the modal verb happens to have two ore more meaning. There is an intuitively obvious connexion, on the one hand, between the nations of necessity and obligation, which are relevant to the semantics analysis of sentence containing ‘must’, and, on the other, between the nation of possibility and permission, which are relevant to the semantics analysis of sentences containing ‘may. Moreover, the ambiguity found in English sentences containing ‘must’ and ‘may’ is also found, in comparable sentences, in other languages.
Two other kind of necessity and possibility are recognized and formalized, in various way, by logicians: epistemic*and deontic*. The significance of these term will be explained presently. But here it may be simply mentioned that it is epistemic necessity that is involved in (15) and deontic necessity in (16).epistemic necessity is intuitively closer to alethic necessity than deontic necessity is.
B. Epistemic modality and factifity
Main article: epistemic modality
Epistemic modals are used to indicate the possibility or necessity of some piece of knowledge. In the epistemic use, modals can be interpreted as indicating inference or some other process of reasoning involved in coming ti the conclusion stated in the sentence containing the modal. However, epistemic modals do not necessarily require inference, reasoning, or evidence. One effect of using an epistemic modal (as opposed to not using one) is a general weakening of the speaker’s commitment, or whether the weakening is a by-product of some other aspect of the modals meaning.
Whereas epistemology is concerned with the nature and source of knowledge, epistemic logic deals with the logical structure of statement which assert or imply that a particular proposition, or set of propositions, is known or believed.
Factivity is what we will call non-factivity and contra-factifity. They use of a non-factive*predicator, like ‘believe’ or ‘think’, commits the speaker to neither the truth nor the falsity of the proposition expressed by its complement clause in such statement as he believes/ think that Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland.
The most obvious examples of contra-factive utterances (and they are recognized as such in traditional grammer) are wishes*and so-called unreal* (or counter-factual) conditionals (which past-time reference), such as
(4) I wish he had been to paris
And
(5) if he had been to paris, he would have visited Montmartre.
Unreal conditional statement, like (5), contrast with so-called real* conditional statement such as
(8) if he went to paris, he visited Montmartre,
Which (construed in the sense in which it is not equivalent to whenever he went to paris, he visited montmartre) is neither factive nor contra-factive, but non-factive.
In principle, two kinds of epistemic modality can be distinguished: objective*and subjective*. This is not a distinction that can be drawn sharply I the everyday use of language; and its epistemological justification is, to say the least, uncertain. Its also difficult to draw a sharp distinction between what we are calling objective epistemic modality and alethic modality; both of them are subsumed by carnap’s nation of logical probability.
The important point is that objective epistemic modality is in principle quantifiable on a scale whose extremes are necessity and impossibility; and different language-system may well grammaticalize or lexicalige distinction along this scale in terms of more of fewer degrees.
There is somerevidence to suggest that, in English at least, epistemic mofality is possibility-based. The following utterances containing may or can are all acceptable as having either subjective or objective epistemic modality:
It may be raining
It may not be raining
It can’t be raining
It can’t not be raining (or it cannot but be raining)
And differ from another in that the former means “it is possible that it is not raining “ and the letter “it is not possible that it is raining”. Means (it is not possible that it is not raining).
C. Tense as modality
Tense-logic is a branch of modal logic which extend propositional calculus by in traducing into the system a set of tense-operators whose function and interpretation is similar t that of the operators of logical necessity and possibility in standard modal logic.
Every utterance establishes its own spatiotemporal point of reference the zero=point of the deictic system-in relation to which the entities, event and states-of-affairs referred to by the speaker may be identified.
1. It was raining
2. It will bw raining
Under this analysis of the meaning of (1) and (2), we have assigned the temporal reference or past and future tense, like objective epistemic modality, to the topic, rather than the pharastic . the distinction that we are operating with (which we have taken from hare and, in part, reinterpreted) is one that is not drawn in standard systems of logic.
What Augustine calls the “present of past things” can be described, in terms that linguists have often used in their discussion of tense, as a past embedded in a present. The sematic plausibility of this interpretation of tense is revealed in such utterances as the following:
It is a fact (in w) that is was raining(in w)
It is a fact (in w) that it will be raining(in w)
These sentence may not be exactly equivalent to ‘it was raining’ and ‘it will be raining’, but they do hold constant the present and the past or future point of reference; and they help us to see what is meant by “a present of past things” and “a present of future things”.
More commonly, however, in utterances in which the reference of is past in relation to t and the reference of t is future in relation to to, will be interpreted intensionally, rather than extantionaly; not as a word of fact and objective possibilities, but as a world that is composed of subjective expectations, predictions, and intentions. Jhon was coming tomorrow, under an intentional interpretation of w, might be held to have roughly the same meaning (as an utterance, thought not as a sentence) as jhon said that he as/ would be coming tomorrow, jhon intended coming tomorrow, I thought / was told that jhon was/ would be coming tomorrow, ect.
This distinction between an international and an extentional interpretation of futurity can also be drawn in relation to sentences like, it will be raining (tomorrow)’, ever since aristotle first raised the question, the factuality of statement descriptive, or predictive, of future events, or states-of-affairs, has been philosophically controversial and many philosophers would deny that we can make statement about the future at all, on the grounds that we cannot have knowledge, but only beliefs, about future world-states.
That there is a connexion is perhaps obvious enough, independently of any arguments that might be based upon the grammatical structure of particular language. But there is, in fact, ample linguistic evidence. What is conventionally regarded as the future tense (in languages that are said to have a future tense)is rarely if ever, used solely for marking statement or prediction, or posing and asking factual question, about the future. It is also used in a wider or narrower range of non-factive utterances involving supposition, inference, wish, intention and desire. Furthermore, the future, non-future distinction is frequently neutralized in subordinate or negative clauses, in participles and nominalization, in association with all mood othr than the indicative, and in various other constructions: the fact would suggest that the opposition of the future to the present is less central the structure of the languages than is the opposition of tge past to the present (which is, in any case, an opposition that is more widely grammaticalized throughout the language of the world ). So too would the fact that the so-called future tense is in many languages constructed according to different pattern of formation than is the past or the present tense.
In many languages throughout the world, the nation of possibility and obligation are associated with the same non-factive, or subjunctive, mood, and this is commonly also the mood of prediction, supposition, intention, and desire, as it is in many of the indo-european languages.
D. Deontic modality
The term deontic (from the greek deon : what is binding) is now quite widely used by philosophers to refer to a particular branch or extention of modal logic: the modal logic of obligation and permission. There are certain obvious differences between alethic and epistemic necessity, on the one hand, and what we might call denotic necessity., on the other. Logical and epistemic necessity, as we have seen, have to do with the truth of propositions, deontic modality is concered with the necessity or possibility of act performed by morally responsible agent.
Deontic modals are those that indicate how the world ought to be, according to the certain norms, expectations, speaker desire, etc. in other world, deontic uses indicate that the state of the world (where world is loosely defined here in terms of the circumstances surrounding the use of the modal) does not met some standard or ideal, whether yhat standard be social (such as laws) personal (desires), etc. the sentences containing the deontic modal generally indicates some action that would so that it becomes closer to the standard/ ideal.
Deontic modality is modality that connotes the speaker’s
• Degree of requirement of
• Desire for, or
• Commitment to the realization of.
The proposition expressed by the utterance
Example
• You may go at four o’clock
• All elections shall take place on schedule
A third characteristic of deontically modalized utterances which differentiates them, or appears to differentiate them, from logically and epistemically modalized utterance is that deontic necessary typically proceeds, or derives, from some sorce or couse.
Philosophers, in their discussion of deontic modality, have been mainly concerned wihtnthe notions of moral obligations, duty and right conduct.
The origin of deontic modality, it has often been suggested, is to be sought in the desiderative and instrumental function of language: that is to say, in yhe use of language, on the one hand, to express or indicate wants and desires and, on the other to get thing done by imposing one’s will on other agents.
Language, as the child soon realizes, is not only o instrument that he can use in other to impose his will onother and get them to do what he want.
The range of utterances whereby parents and those in authority over him regulate the behavior of the child and inculcate in him (if they are successful) a set of moral and social norms and patterns of behavior includes not only directivest, but also statement. The parent can say, not only
Don’t tell lies
But also
It’s wrong to tell lies
The difference between, as they would normally be understood, is that is (or may be) a directive, they utterance of which creates or bring intro existence , a certain obligation, whereas is a deontic statement to the effct that the obligation exist and the word wrong in specifies, in a fairly general way, the nature of this obligation.
Most of the diectivesthat are issued I everyday social interaction do not have as their function the creation of an obligation to behave in a certain wey or no refrain from behaving in a certain well for all time or on all occasions.
An obligation may also be restricted explicitly by means of an adverb or an adverbial clause of phrase of time, and this adverb or adverbial expression may have either singular or generic reference, and it may refer to either a point or period of time. For example, in turn up the thermostat when you get home the expression.’when you get home’ may refer to same single individual event of home-coming and it would normally, thought not necessarily be understood in this way, if it were supplemented with a phrase like ‘this evening’. But the same expression might also be employed with generic reference, in which case it would be more or less equipalent to ‘whenever you get home’. In certain language this difference between singular and generic temporal reference will e grammaticalized in terms of the category of aspect.
The important point is that both the person imposing the obligation and the person upon whom it is imposecd will normally be aware of what the implicit “immeiately” means on particular occasion and that is sufficient. Henceforth, e shall be concerned with directives which impose upon those to whom they are addressed the obligation to carry out immediately the act or course of action that is prescribed and we will refer to them whether they are conditional or unconditional, as temporally unrestricted directives.
E. Obligation, permission, prohibition, and exemtion
We have so far discussed deontic utterances both directives and statements in terms of the notion of obligation and we have seen that thereis least an intuitive relationship, which we have yet to explicate, between utterances such as
1. Open the door
2. Don’t open the door
Construed as commands and prohitions respectively, and statements to the effect that there exist an obligation to act or to refrain from acting in certain way. But we must nowbring in the notion of permission, which is related to possibility in the same way that obligation is related to necessity.
But first let us consider how (1) and (2) differ from,and how they are related to the following:
3. You must open the door
4. You musn’t open the door
5. You may open the door
6. You needn’t/ don’t have to open the door.
One important difference is that, whereas (1) and (2), would normally be uttered and taken as directives,(3)-(6) may be interpreted either as directives (e.g., as meaning “l hereby impose upon you the obligation to open the door”) or as statement (e.g as meaning “l hereby assert that you are obliged( by some unspecified authority) to open the the door”). In the either case it is an unqualified act of telling that is involved: and this is true also of (1) and (2). We cannot therefore account for the difference between the two interpretations in terms of the qualification of the l-say-so component. Furthermore, since(3)-(6) can be used as statements we must, for this interpretation at least, allow for their having an unqualified it is so tropic.
The fact that in many languages, and not only in english, the same sentences may be used either to report mands or to assert that an obligation exist is of considerable importance. It lends support to the view, put forward above, that our understanding of deontic statements is based upon an ontogenetically prior understanding of the illocutionary force of mands.
It is worth noting also that commands and demands may be reported or transmitted by means of imperative sentences with an explicit acknowledgment of their sourse:
7. Come in and have your bath: mummy says so
In the situations in which 7 would normally be uttered, it would be more or less equivalent to
8. You have got to come in and have your bath: mummy says so
9. Mummy says you have got to come in and have your bath.
And in all three cases the person making the utterance would normally be understood to be transmitting a mand from someone whose authority to create an obligation he himself acknowledges. Situation of this kind we can think of as being models for the child’s understanding of the meaning of deontic statements.
Permission as we saw above, is related to obligation in standard systems of deontic logic in the same way that possibility is related t necessity. But a distinction can be drawn, intuitively at least between a passive or weaker sense of permission and an active, or stronger,sense. A course of action is permissible in the weak sense if, and only if, it is not explicity prohibited. Under this interpretation of permission, every possible course of action is the either permissible or prohibited, and permission is interdefinable with obligation.
As positive commands and demands are related to prohibiton, so permissions are related to what we will call exemtions. When we issue a permission, by means of a permission-granting utterance e.g you may open the door, we either cancel a pre-existing prohibition or determine the deontic status of some action whose deontic status was previously undetermined. When we issue an exemtion-granting utterance, for example you needn’t open the door, we cancel a pre-existing obligation or determine, by fiat, a deontically undetermined action.
The fisrt poin that must be made in this connexion is that, although imperative sentences are characteristcally ussed to issue mands, they may also be employed,in certain situations, to grant permission. For example, when we say Come in ! in response to a knock on the door, we are not normally understood to be issuing a command (or even a request), but to be granting to the person who has knocked permission to enter room; and his knock is, by convention, taken to be equivalent to a request for our permission; as meaning “ May l come in?”.
F. A Tentative Synthesis
It is a widely held view among linguists that there is a fundamental difference between the epistemic and the deontic uses of ‘may’ or ‘can’ and ‘must’ in english; and this difference has been accounted for in some recent transformational analyses by classifying the epistemic modal verb as intransitive and the deontic modals as transitive. The so-called intransitive modals, under this analysis of their meaning and function, would have a nominalized sentential subject; and the transitive modals would have as their subject an expression referring to the person who is the source of the obligation or permission and as their object a nominalized sentence referring to what is obligatory or permissible. Rougly speaking, under this analysis, ‘’jhon may come in’’ would mean “ that jhon will come in is possible” with the intransitive “may” and, under the permission-granting interpretation,” l make it possible that jhon will come in” with the transitive “may”.
There are several point that may be in relation to this analysis.First of all,like most treatments of epistemic modality it fails to acount for the diference between a subjective and an objective interpretation or epistemic modality. By comparing an objectively modalized epistemic interpretation with a permission – granting deontic interpretation it makes the transitive – intransitive distinction look semantically more plausible than it is. As soon as we gloss the allegedly intransitive sentence as “ i think – it – possible that Jhon will come in “ we see that there can be,inprinciple, a transitive analysis of epistemic modality.A|The transitive analysis of Jhon may come in , interpreted as a deontic statement,is on the other hand highly implausible: “ Jhon makes – it – possible that Jhon come in” is semantically inapppropriate, and such analyses as “ for Jhon it is possible that Jhon will come in”, event if they are interpretable in the appropriate way,depend upon some rather questionable syntactic proseses and an eccentric notion of what it mean for an expression to be the subject of a transitive verb.
A second general criticsm that can be made of the tranformasional,analysis of epistemic and deontic sentences outlined above is that it says nothing about the difference in the way in which we have interpret the nominalized sentence in the two different syntactic environments.One of the points that was made at the begining of this section was that deontic necessity and possibility are usually understood to originate in some casual source. If someone is obliged or permited to carry out some source of action, it is generally,though not necesserily, asumed that some person or insituation has created the obligation or permission.
If we look at the matter in this way , we can see way the same modal verbs and adjectives are used,in many languages, in what appear to be, and are often classified as,diffferent senses : the ‘ may’ of permission , the ‘ may’ of alethic possibility etc,in so far as they can be distinguished .In term of conceptual model within which the possibility or necessity of something being so is understood by analogy with our understanding of the deontic notions of granting permission and imposing obligation.
Conclusion
After we studied all about modality in the previous chapter, we can conclude it to some points.
The definition of modality in semiotics is a parcicular way in which the infomation is to be encoded for presentstion to humans, to the type of sign and to the status of reality ascribed to or climed by a sign text or genre. And the definition of modality in linguistic,modality refers to the attitude of the speaker.
The kind of modality is necessiti and possibility,epistemic modality and factivity,tense as a modality,deontic modality,obligation,permission,prohibition,exemption, a tentative synthesis.
Bibliography
Linguistic modality – Wikipedia,the free encyclopedia.
http: // www.sil.org./lingualinks/contents,htm.
Lyon,Jhon.(1978).Semantics.London and Newyork.Cambridge U
ANALISIS SOAL (TUGAS LANGUAGE TESTING)
A.Choose the correct answer by crossing (x) a,b,c, or d !
1. Rendy : Are you sure that the disk is OK ?
Nina : I’m not sure,but we can check it.
The italic sentence expresses...
A.Apologize
B.Agree
C.Disagree
D.Uncertainty
2. Santy : ... ?
Lia : Of course,I’ve ever made the cake for twice.
A.How many cakes do you make ?
B.Can you make a cake ?
C.Do you make a cake ?
D.Are you sure that the step are right ?
3. Ana : I’m going to buy some books at Asia Plaza tomorrow.Can you join me ?
Vina : Well...I can’t decide whether join or not.
The underlined sentence expresses...
A.Certainty
B.Doubt
C.Agree
D.Apologize
4. Ana : Would you like to go with me ?
Vina : ........if I have time tomorrow.I’m sorry.
Ana : Never mind.
Vina : Thanks.
A.I’m sure about it
B.I’m certain
C.No,I’m not sure
D.Yes,I sure
5. Nur : ...?
Nayla : Positive ! I’ve already tried this tip several times.
Nur : OK.I’ll try it.Thanks so much, Nayla.
A.I don’t know
B.Are you sure ?
C.I doubt it
D.I can’t decide
6. Kesya : Hello Resty,look my new purse.I made it my self.
Resty : Hello Kesya,Hey that is nice.Isn’t that your old purpose ? The one that we bought one year ago.
Kesya : Yupz,that’s right.
Resty : How did you do that ?
Kesya : Sorry,what did you say ?
Resty : How did you do that Kesya ?
Kesya : Oh,well.First I just added some color full buttons,then four – five glitery beads.Finally I gave my magic finishing touch,he..he..
The underlined sentence expresses...
A.Asking opinion.
B.Asking repetition.
C.Giving attention
D.Certainty
7. Tanty : Reny,please sweep the floor !
Reny : ..................................?
Tanty : Sweep the floor please !
A.Pardon me.
B.Why me.
C.What do you sweep ?
D.What did you order ?
8. Andy : Don’t you know about the accident last night ?
Rina : Yes,tell me more about it !
The italic sentence expresses...
A.Repetition
B.Opinion
C.Expressing attention
D.Doubt
9. Any : Don’t you know about the earthquake in Tasikmalaya ?
Edy : ...
A.What is this ?
B.Not yet.Can you tell me about it ?
C.I like that.
D.That’s sound good
10. Sutrisno : Donna,have you seen this kind of textile before ?
Donna : Oh,what a beautiful textile ! I love it.
Sutrisno : We call it “ Batik “ .It is a javanese traditional cloth.
Donna : I see.
The undelined sentence expresses...
A.Repetition
B.Admiration
C.Disagree
D.Doubt
Text for questions no 11 – 26
Rock Music
Rock music is a ...(11) of popular music today.It...(12 ) played and listened in almost every countries in the world.Rock and roll was the name ...(13) to the music that...(14) in the early 1950’s....(15) is believed that the term rock and roll was first used by a disk Jockey,Alan Freed.
In 1955,records of a young ...(16) from Tennessee,Elvis Presley,were...(17) accros the US.After ...(18) appeared on nation – wide television,Elvis Presley’s singing and ...(19) performing style come to mean rock and roll all over the ...(20).Then ...(21) Bill Haley and The Comets.Rock mainly became the music of the young....(22)understood its beat ...(23) sound,and its lyrics.
The 1970’s were the time of big development in the rock ...(24).Rock become a very big business,earned more money annualy than any other form of ...(25) including the film industry.
11. A.Part C.Music
B. Disk D.Nation
12. A.Is C.Were
B.Have D.Are
13. A.Style C.From
B.Given D.Play
14. A.Developed C.Go
B.Sent D.Bring
15. A.She C.It
B.They D.We
16. A.Barber C.Teacher
B.Singer D.Soldier
17. A.Heard C.That
B.Sent D.Need
18. A.She C.They
B.He D.We
19. A.Her C.He
B.His D.Their
20. A.World C.House
B.Village D.Market
21. A.Run C.Went
B.Came D.Bring
22. A.It C.She
B.They D.His
23. A.Because C.And
B.If D.For
24. A.Entertainment C.Form
B.Industry D.Film
25. A.Industry C.Business
B.Film D.Entertainent
26. The text above is a...text.
A.Narrative
B.Report
C.Recount
D.Procedure
Text for questions no 27 – 28
How to turn on your computer
1.First,get your finger out.
2.Second,push the button.
3.Finally,welldone !!! you complete the challenge.
27. The text above is a...text.
A.Report
B.Recount
C.Procedure
D.Narrative
28. How many steps to turn on computer ?
A.One Step.
B.Two Steps
C.Three Steps
D.Four Steps
29. Rearange the jumbled sentences !
1.Press the power button.
2.Choose the program you want to watch.
3.Adjust the volume.
4.First plug the cable into an electric outlet.
5.Watch and enjoy the program.
A.2-3-4-5-1
B.1-5-3-2-1
C.3-5-2-1-4
D.4-1-2-3-5
Text for questions no 30 – 35
Dances
Dances are part of celebrations,and mark important times of life such as births,wedding and funerals.They are parts of festivities at times of planting and harvesting of rice,and other important events.
There are many different types and styles of dances.They are Court,Martial,Mask dances.The dances of different island vary.Men and woman seldom perform together ,except in courtship dances.Generally dancers wil be either men or women.Indonesian dances are slow,with very controlled movementS.The dancers’s arm and hand movement are very important.
The court dances are very formal in style.Dancers keep their faces without any expression,and perform precise gestures.Some dances reflect the pomp and fomality of the court.Some dances tell stories from the Ramayana,the Hindu holy book.
Martial dances are generally performed only by men.They were originally war dances and in come the men demonstrade their skill in using the weapons of battle,such as spears.Some dances involve the use of elaborate masks.It is believed that when a dancer wears a mask,he takes on the character of the mask as though the spirit of the mask takes over.Each island has different mask dances,and different styles of masks.
30. The genre of the text above is...
A.Recount
B.Report
C.Review
D.Narrative
31. Are there many different types and style of dances ?
A.Yes,there are
B.No,there aren’t
C.Yes,it is
D.No,isn’t
32. What’s dances which slow and with very controlled movement ?
A.Martial dances
B.Court dances
C.Indonesian dances
D.Mask dances
33. What’s dances which very formal in style ?
A.Court dances
B.Martial dances
C.Mask dances
D.Indonesian dances
34. The statement “ Generally performed only by men “ refers to...
A.Mask dances
B.Court dances
C.Indonesian dances
D.Martial dances
35. “ They were originally war dances and in come the men demonstrade their skill in using the weapons of battle,such as spears.(Paragraph 4).The underlined word refers to...
A.Men
B.He
C.She
D.Woman
36. Attention please !
Continental executive bus will be leaving from Bukit Tinggi through Pekan Baru at 14.40. Would passengers now board the bus ?
The text above is...
A.Opinion
B.Announcement
C.Recount
D.Advertisement
Read the advertisement and answer questions no.37 – 40
VACANCIES
Urgently looking :
1.Accounting staff
2.Secretary
3.Administration staff
Requirement :
• Can speak English (1,2,3)
• Good looking (2,3)
• Have experience (1,2,3)
Salary will be negotiable.
Please e-mail : JKT I25.com or fax 56576625
37. To apply for an accounting staff position,an applicant must...
A.Be able to speak English
B.Be able to speak English and good looking
C.Good looking and have experience
D.Be able to speak English and have experience
38. To apply for an administration staff position,an applicant must...
A. Be able to speak English
B.Be able to speak English and have experience
C.Be able to speak English,good looking and have experience
D.Be able to speak English and good looking
39. Which of the following statement is true ?
The correct answer is...
A To apply for an administration staff position,an aplicant must be good looking only.
B. To apply for a secretary position,an applicant must be able to speak English only.
C. To apply for a secretary position,an aplicant must be able to speak English,good looking and have experience
D. To apply for an accounting staff position,an applicant must be good looking.
40. The application letter should be sent via...
A. Twitter
B.Facebook
C.E-mail or Fax
D. Post office
B.Answer the following questions !
41.Rearange the jumbled sentences !
A. Type the topic of your email in the subject fields.
B. Enter an email address in to fields (mandatory) and if necessary the Cc and Bcc fields.
C. Type your email ,in the large editing area.If your email is in English,you can spell check the message.
D. Clik send to send the message.You should receive a confirmation screensaying the message was sent.
E. On yahoo mail welcome screen or on any of the mail screens,you can see Compose and Compose text Message buttons displayed.Select either one of them.If you click Composebutton,you can include special fonts,emoticons,colours,etc.Normally you select this.If you select Compose Text Message,you cannot include any special pictures or icon.
42.What is procedure text and mention the text structure of procedure text ?
Complete the following dialog by giving your responses both to show your certainty and uncertainty !
43.Resty : Are you sure that your DVD do not broken ?
• Certainty :......................................................................................................
• Uncertainty :........................................................................................................
44.
JOB VACANCIES
PT.ANUGRAH
Urgently loking :
1.Secretary
2.Marketing staff
3.Accounting staff
4.Administration staff
Requirement :
• Can speak English (1,2,3,4)
• Good looking (1,4)
• Have experience(1,2,3,4)
Salary will be negotiable.
Please e-mail to : Anugrah@yahoo.com
To apply for a secretary position,an applicant must...
Complete the following dialog !
45.Ragil : Ren,do you know how to turn on the computer ?
Reny : Yes,it’s easy.Just turn on the power supply,then the monitor,and the CPU will on.
Ragil : Sorry,your instruction was too fast.Can you repeat that ?
Reny : ..................................................................................
Ragil : Thanks.
Key Answer
Part A.
1.D 11.A 21.B 31.A
2.B 12.A 22.B 32.C
3.B 13.B 23.C 33.A
4.C 14.A 24.B 34.D
5.B 15.C 25.D 35.A
6.B 16.B 26.B 36.B
7.D 17.A 27.C 37.D
8.C 18.B 28.C 38.C
9.B 19.B 29.D 39.C
10.B 20.A 30.B 40.C
Part B.
41.E. On yahoo mail welcome screen or on any of the mail screens,you can see Compose and Compose text Message buttons displayed.Select either one of them.If you click Composebutton,you can include special fonts,emoticons,colours,etc.Normally you select this.If you select Compose Text Message,you cannot include any special pictures or icon.
B. Enter an email address in to fields (mandatory) and if necessary the Cc and Bcc fields.
A. Type the topic of your email in the subject fields.
C. Type your email ,in the large editing area.If your email is in English,you can spell check the message.
D. Clik send to send the message.You should receive a confirmation screensaying the message was sent.
42. Procedure text is a text that which has function to inform and to direct someone to do something.
Text structure of procedure : 1.Goal is something to archieve
2.Material is thing needed to archieve the goal.
3.Steps are activity to archieve the goal.
43. Certainty : I’m sure that my DVD do not broken.
Uncertainty : I’m not sure that my DVD do not broken.
44. To apply for a secretary position,an applicant must be able to speak English,good looking and have experience.
45. Oh,I’m sorry,I will repeat it.
MATERIALS
A.Expressios of Certainty and Uncertainty
1.Asking Certainty
• Are you sure that...?
• Are you sure about...?
• How do you sure ?
• Are you positively sure ?
2.Responding or Expressing Certainty
• Yes,it is confirmed.
• I’m sure.
• Of course.
• Sure,I certain.
• I have no doubtabout it.
3.Giving Uncertainty
• I’m not sure.
• I’m not certain of it.
• I afraid that it is wrong.
• Sorry,I’m not sure.
B.Expressons of Doubtness
1.Showing Doubtness
• Well,I don’t know.
• I’m not sure.
• I doubt it.
2.Responding Doubtness
• Don’t worry.
• You’ll be fine.
• I have no doubt about it.
C.Expression of Repetition
1.Expression of Repetition
• I’m sorry,what did you say ?
• What?
• Could you repeat what you just said ?
2.Respond for Repetition
• Oh,sorry !
• Ok.I’ll repeat it.
• Sure,listen it !
D.Expressions of Getting and Responding for Attention
1.Getting Attention
• I have interesting news
• Listen ! want to tell you something...
• Don’t yu know that ?
• Have you heard that ?
2.Responding Attention
• O.K.About what ?
• Tell me more about it.
• Yes,what news ?
E.Expressions Admiration
• What a nice hair style !
• That’s really fantastic !
• What wonderful scenery !
• What a beautiful costume !
F.Procedure Text
Procedure text is a text that which has function to inform and to direct someone to do something.
Text structure of procedure : 1.Goal is something to archieve
2.Material is thing needed to archieve the goal.
3.Steps are activity to archieve the goal.
Example Procedure text
How to Turn on Your Computer
1.First,get your finger out.
2.Second,push the button.
3.Finally,welldone !!! you complete the challenge.
How to Send Email in Yahoo
• On yahoo mail welcome screen or on any of the mail screens,you can see Compose and Compose text Message buttons displayed.Select either one of them.If you click Composebutton,you can include special fonts,emoticons,colours,etc.Normally you select this.If you select Compose Text Message,you cannot include any special pictures or icon.
• Enter an email address in to fields (mandatory) and if necessary the Cc and Bcc fields.
• Type the topic of your email in the subject fields.
• Type your email ,in the large editing area.If your email is in English,you can spell check the message.
• Clik send to send the message.You should receive a confirmation screensaying the message was sent.
G.Report Text
Report text is used to talk and write about something in general.
The Grammatical of a report text are :
• Focus on generic participants.
• Use of relational process to state what is and that which it is.
• Use Simple Present Tense.
• No teporal sequence.
The text structure of report are :
• Title
• General classification / identification.
• Description / series of descriptions of subject.
Example Report Text
Rock Music
Rock music is a part of popular music today.It is played and listened in almost every countries in the world.Rock and roll was the name given to the music that developed in the early 1950’s.It is believed that the term rock and roll was first used by a disk Jockey,Alan Freed.
In 1955,records of a young singer from Tennessee,Elvis Presley,were heard accros the US.After he appeared on nation – wide television,Elvis Presley’s singing and his performing style come to mean rock and roll all over the world.Then came Bill Haley and The Comets.Rock mainly became the music of the young.They understood its beat and sound,and its lyrics.
The 1970’s were the time of big development in the rock industry.Rock become a very big business,earned more money annualy than any other form of entertainment including the film industry.
Dances
Dances are part of celebrations,and mark important times of life such as births,wedding and funerals.They are parts of festivities at times of planting and harvesting of rice,and other important events.
There are many different types and styles of dances.They are Court,Martial,Mask dances.The dances of different island vary.Men and woman seldom perform together ,except in courtship dances.Generally dancers wil be either men or women.Indonesian dances are slow,with very controlled movementS.The dancers’s arm and hand movement are very important.
The court dances are very formal in style.Dancers keep their faces without any expression,and perform precise gestures.Some dances reflect the pomp and fomality of the court.Some dances tell stories from the Ramayana,the Hindu holy book.
Martial dances are generally performed only by men.They were originally war dances and in come the men demonstrade their skill in using the weapons of battle,such as spears.Some dances involve the use of elaborate masks.It is believed that when a dancer wears a mask,he takes on the character of the mask as though the spirit of the mask takes over.Each island has different mask dances,and different styles of masks.
H.Advertisement
VACANCIES
Urgently loking :
Accounting staff
Requirement :
• Can speak English
• Good looking
• Have experience
Salary will be negotiable
Please email to : JKT125@yahoo.com
JOB VACANCIES
PT.ANUGRAH
Urgently loking :
1.Secretary
2.Marketing staff
3.Accounting staff
4.Administration staff
Requirement :
• Can speak English (1,2,3,4)
• Good looking (1,4)
• Have experience(1,2,3,4)
Salary will be negotiable.
Please e-mail to : Anugrah@yahoo.com
I.Announcement
Attention please !
Continental executive bus will be leaving from Bukit Tinggi through Pekan Baru at 14.40. Would passengers now board the bus ?
ANALYSIS VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
A.VALIDITAS
Questions no 1-10 have been valid because questions no 1 – 10 match to test speaking skill.Question no 1- 10 appropriate with competence standard and appropriate to basic competence and indicator too.In questions no 1- 10 there are dialog to test speaking skill.In there,students is ordered to complete the dialog,for example dialog that consist of certainty or uncertainty expresion,doubtness expression,admiration expression,attention expression,repetition expression.Questions no 1 – 10 have made students can share their idea about the expression of certainty or uncertainty expresion,doubtness expression,admiration expression,attention and that appropriate with competence standard,basic competence and indicator too.The questions is not so difficult and is not so easy.
Questions no 11 – 26 have been valid because questions no 11 – 26 match to test listening skill.They appropriate with competence standard,basic competence and indicator too.There is text about Music rock.In there,students is ordered to fill in the blank based on the text that is read by their teacher.In there,students must fill in the blank with appropriate word.For example students can fill in the blank with verb,noun etc.Students can share their idea to answer the questions.The questions is not so difficult and is not so easy.Questions no 11 – 26 have measured to test listening skill.
Questions no 27- 40 have been valid because questions no 27 – 40 and question no 44 match to test reading skill.Questions no 27 – 40 appropriate with competence standard,basic competence and indicator too.In there,students is ordered to read the text and then answer the questions based on the text.The text that used are procedure text and report text.Questions no 27 – 40 have measured reading skill from students.Students can’t answer that questions without read the text.So,its important to read the text because the answer from that question based on the text.Questions in there can measure students’s ability in reading.So far,students can understand content of the text.
Questions no 41 – 45 have been valid because questions no 41,42,43 and 45 match to test writing skill.Questions no 27 – 40 appropriate with competence standard,basic competence and indicator too.In there,student is ordered to write the answer.For example in there,students is ordered to rearange the jumbled sentences,is ordered to write definition of procedure and explain it with text structure of procedure text,is ordered to make dialog.It match to measure writing skill from students.So far student’s skill to make and to write procedure,to make and write dialog etc.
B.RELIABILITAS
All Questions from no 1 – 45 have been reliable because,questions from no 1 – 45 is matched with student’s ability in Junior high school at IX grade semester 1.Questions from no 1 – 45 have ability to defend quality consistency from test result.Questions from no 1 – 45 have consistency of the test,have measured what should be measured in every language skill in Junior high school at IX grade semester 1.
1. Rendy : Are you sure that the disk is OK ?
Nina : I’m not sure,but we can check it.
The italic sentence expresses...
A.Apologize
B.Agree
C.Disagree
D.Uncertainty
2. Santy : ... ?
Lia : Of course,I’ve ever made the cake for twice.
A.How many cakes do you make ?
B.Can you make a cake ?
C.Do you make a cake ?
D.Are you sure that the step are right ?
3. Ana : I’m going to buy some books at Asia Plaza tomorrow.Can you join me ?
Vina : Well...I can’t decide whether join or not.
The underlined sentence expresses...
A.Certainty
B.Doubt
C.Agree
D.Apologize
4. Ana : Would you like to go with me ?
Vina : ........if I have time tomorrow.I’m sorry.
Ana : Never mind.
Vina : Thanks.
A.I’m sure about it
B.I’m certain
C.No,I’m not sure
D.Yes,I sure
5. Nur : ...?
Nayla : Positive ! I’ve already tried this tip several times.
Nur : OK.I’ll try it.Thanks so much, Nayla.
A.I don’t know
B.Are you sure ?
C.I doubt it
D.I can’t decide
6. Kesya : Hello Resty,look my new purse.I made it my self.
Resty : Hello Kesya,Hey that is nice.Isn’t that your old purpose ? The one that we bought one year ago.
Kesya : Yupz,that’s right.
Resty : How did you do that ?
Kesya : Sorry,what did you say ?
Resty : How did you do that Kesya ?
Kesya : Oh,well.First I just added some color full buttons,then four – five glitery beads.Finally I gave my magic finishing touch,he..he..
The underlined sentence expresses...
A.Asking opinion.
B.Asking repetition.
C.Giving attention
D.Certainty
7. Tanty : Reny,please sweep the floor !
Reny : ..................................?
Tanty : Sweep the floor please !
A.Pardon me.
B.Why me.
C.What do you sweep ?
D.What did you order ?
8. Andy : Don’t you know about the accident last night ?
Rina : Yes,tell me more about it !
The italic sentence expresses...
A.Repetition
B.Opinion
C.Expressing attention
D.Doubt
9. Any : Don’t you know about the earthquake in Tasikmalaya ?
Edy : ...
A.What is this ?
B.Not yet.Can you tell me about it ?
C.I like that.
D.That’s sound good
10. Sutrisno : Donna,have you seen this kind of textile before ?
Donna : Oh,what a beautiful textile ! I love it.
Sutrisno : We call it “ Batik “ .It is a javanese traditional cloth.
Donna : I see.
The undelined sentence expresses...
A.Repetition
B.Admiration
C.Disagree
D.Doubt
Text for questions no 11 – 26
Rock Music
Rock music is a ...(11) of popular music today.It...(12 ) played and listened in almost every countries in the world.Rock and roll was the name ...(13) to the music that...(14) in the early 1950’s....(15) is believed that the term rock and roll was first used by a disk Jockey,Alan Freed.
In 1955,records of a young ...(16) from Tennessee,Elvis Presley,were...(17) accros the US.After ...(18) appeared on nation – wide television,Elvis Presley’s singing and ...(19) performing style come to mean rock and roll all over the ...(20).Then ...(21) Bill Haley and The Comets.Rock mainly became the music of the young....(22)understood its beat ...(23) sound,and its lyrics.
The 1970’s were the time of big development in the rock ...(24).Rock become a very big business,earned more money annualy than any other form of ...(25) including the film industry.
11. A.Part C.Music
B. Disk D.Nation
12. A.Is C.Were
B.Have D.Are
13. A.Style C.From
B.Given D.Play
14. A.Developed C.Go
B.Sent D.Bring
15. A.She C.It
B.They D.We
16. A.Barber C.Teacher
B.Singer D.Soldier
17. A.Heard C.That
B.Sent D.Need
18. A.She C.They
B.He D.We
19. A.Her C.He
B.His D.Their
20. A.World C.House
B.Village D.Market
21. A.Run C.Went
B.Came D.Bring
22. A.It C.She
B.They D.His
23. A.Because C.And
B.If D.For
24. A.Entertainment C.Form
B.Industry D.Film
25. A.Industry C.Business
B.Film D.Entertainent
26. The text above is a...text.
A.Narrative
B.Report
C.Recount
D.Procedure
Text for questions no 27 – 28
How to turn on your computer
1.First,get your finger out.
2.Second,push the button.
3.Finally,welldone !!! you complete the challenge.
27. The text above is a...text.
A.Report
B.Recount
C.Procedure
D.Narrative
28. How many steps to turn on computer ?
A.One Step.
B.Two Steps
C.Three Steps
D.Four Steps
29. Rearange the jumbled sentences !
1.Press the power button.
2.Choose the program you want to watch.
3.Adjust the volume.
4.First plug the cable into an electric outlet.
5.Watch and enjoy the program.
A.2-3-4-5-1
B.1-5-3-2-1
C.3-5-2-1-4
D.4-1-2-3-5
Text for questions no 30 – 35
Dances
Dances are part of celebrations,and mark important times of life such as births,wedding and funerals.They are parts of festivities at times of planting and harvesting of rice,and other important events.
There are many different types and styles of dances.They are Court,Martial,Mask dances.The dances of different island vary.Men and woman seldom perform together ,except in courtship dances.Generally dancers wil be either men or women.Indonesian dances are slow,with very controlled movementS.The dancers’s arm and hand movement are very important.
The court dances are very formal in style.Dancers keep their faces without any expression,and perform precise gestures.Some dances reflect the pomp and fomality of the court.Some dances tell stories from the Ramayana,the Hindu holy book.
Martial dances are generally performed only by men.They were originally war dances and in come the men demonstrade their skill in using the weapons of battle,such as spears.Some dances involve the use of elaborate masks.It is believed that when a dancer wears a mask,he takes on the character of the mask as though the spirit of the mask takes over.Each island has different mask dances,and different styles of masks.
30. The genre of the text above is...
A.Recount
B.Report
C.Review
D.Narrative
31. Are there many different types and style of dances ?
A.Yes,there are
B.No,there aren’t
C.Yes,it is
D.No,isn’t
32. What’s dances which slow and with very controlled movement ?
A.Martial dances
B.Court dances
C.Indonesian dances
D.Mask dances
33. What’s dances which very formal in style ?
A.Court dances
B.Martial dances
C.Mask dances
D.Indonesian dances
34. The statement “ Generally performed only by men “ refers to...
A.Mask dances
B.Court dances
C.Indonesian dances
D.Martial dances
35. “ They were originally war dances and in come the men demonstrade their skill in using the weapons of battle,such as spears.(Paragraph 4).The underlined word refers to...
A.Men
B.He
C.She
D.Woman
36. Attention please !
Continental executive bus will be leaving from Bukit Tinggi through Pekan Baru at 14.40. Would passengers now board the bus ?
The text above is...
A.Opinion
B.Announcement
C.Recount
D.Advertisement
Read the advertisement and answer questions no.37 – 40
VACANCIES
Urgently looking :
1.Accounting staff
2.Secretary
3.Administration staff
Requirement :
• Can speak English (1,2,3)
• Good looking (2,3)
• Have experience (1,2,3)
Salary will be negotiable.
Please e-mail : JKT I25.com or fax 56576625
37. To apply for an accounting staff position,an applicant must...
A.Be able to speak English
B.Be able to speak English and good looking
C.Good looking and have experience
D.Be able to speak English and have experience
38. To apply for an administration staff position,an applicant must...
A. Be able to speak English
B.Be able to speak English and have experience
C.Be able to speak English,good looking and have experience
D.Be able to speak English and good looking
39. Which of the following statement is true ?
The correct answer is...
A To apply for an administration staff position,an aplicant must be good looking only.
B. To apply for a secretary position,an applicant must be able to speak English only.
C. To apply for a secretary position,an aplicant must be able to speak English,good looking and have experience
D. To apply for an accounting staff position,an applicant must be good looking.
40. The application letter should be sent via...
A. Twitter
B.Facebook
C.E-mail or Fax
D. Post office
B.Answer the following questions !
41.Rearange the jumbled sentences !
A. Type the topic of your email in the subject fields.
B. Enter an email address in to fields (mandatory) and if necessary the Cc and Bcc fields.
C. Type your email ,in the large editing area.If your email is in English,you can spell check the message.
D. Clik send to send the message.You should receive a confirmation screensaying the message was sent.
E. On yahoo mail welcome screen or on any of the mail screens,you can see Compose and Compose text Message buttons displayed.Select either one of them.If you click Composebutton,you can include special fonts,emoticons,colours,etc.Normally you select this.If you select Compose Text Message,you cannot include any special pictures or icon.
42.What is procedure text and mention the text structure of procedure text ?
Complete the following dialog by giving your responses both to show your certainty and uncertainty !
43.Resty : Are you sure that your DVD do not broken ?
• Certainty :......................................................................................................
• Uncertainty :........................................................................................................
44.
JOB VACANCIES
PT.ANUGRAH
Urgently loking :
1.Secretary
2.Marketing staff
3.Accounting staff
4.Administration staff
Requirement :
• Can speak English (1,2,3,4)
• Good looking (1,4)
• Have experience(1,2,3,4)
Salary will be negotiable.
Please e-mail to : Anugrah@yahoo.com
To apply for a secretary position,an applicant must...
Complete the following dialog !
45.Ragil : Ren,do you know how to turn on the computer ?
Reny : Yes,it’s easy.Just turn on the power supply,then the monitor,and the CPU will on.
Ragil : Sorry,your instruction was too fast.Can you repeat that ?
Reny : ..................................................................................
Ragil : Thanks.
Key Answer
Part A.
1.D 11.A 21.B 31.A
2.B 12.A 22.B 32.C
3.B 13.B 23.C 33.A
4.C 14.A 24.B 34.D
5.B 15.C 25.D 35.A
6.B 16.B 26.B 36.B
7.D 17.A 27.C 37.D
8.C 18.B 28.C 38.C
9.B 19.B 29.D 39.C
10.B 20.A 30.B 40.C
Part B.
41.E. On yahoo mail welcome screen or on any of the mail screens,you can see Compose and Compose text Message buttons displayed.Select either one of them.If you click Composebutton,you can include special fonts,emoticons,colours,etc.Normally you select this.If you select Compose Text Message,you cannot include any special pictures or icon.
B. Enter an email address in to fields (mandatory) and if necessary the Cc and Bcc fields.
A. Type the topic of your email in the subject fields.
C. Type your email ,in the large editing area.If your email is in English,you can spell check the message.
D. Clik send to send the message.You should receive a confirmation screensaying the message was sent.
42. Procedure text is a text that which has function to inform and to direct someone to do something.
Text structure of procedure : 1.Goal is something to archieve
2.Material is thing needed to archieve the goal.
3.Steps are activity to archieve the goal.
43. Certainty : I’m sure that my DVD do not broken.
Uncertainty : I’m not sure that my DVD do not broken.
44. To apply for a secretary position,an applicant must be able to speak English,good looking and have experience.
45. Oh,I’m sorry,I will repeat it.
MATERIALS
A.Expressios of Certainty and Uncertainty
1.Asking Certainty
• Are you sure that...?
• Are you sure about...?
• How do you sure ?
• Are you positively sure ?
2.Responding or Expressing Certainty
• Yes,it is confirmed.
• I’m sure.
• Of course.
• Sure,I certain.
• I have no doubtabout it.
3.Giving Uncertainty
• I’m not sure.
• I’m not certain of it.
• I afraid that it is wrong.
• Sorry,I’m not sure.
B.Expressons of Doubtness
1.Showing Doubtness
• Well,I don’t know.
• I’m not sure.
• I doubt it.
2.Responding Doubtness
• Don’t worry.
• You’ll be fine.
• I have no doubt about it.
C.Expression of Repetition
1.Expression of Repetition
• I’m sorry,what did you say ?
• What?
• Could you repeat what you just said ?
2.Respond for Repetition
• Oh,sorry !
• Ok.I’ll repeat it.
• Sure,listen it !
D.Expressions of Getting and Responding for Attention
1.Getting Attention
• I have interesting news
• Listen ! want to tell you something...
• Don’t yu know that ?
• Have you heard that ?
2.Responding Attention
• O.K.About what ?
• Tell me more about it.
• Yes,what news ?
E.Expressions Admiration
• What a nice hair style !
• That’s really fantastic !
• What wonderful scenery !
• What a beautiful costume !
F.Procedure Text
Procedure text is a text that which has function to inform and to direct someone to do something.
Text structure of procedure : 1.Goal is something to archieve
2.Material is thing needed to archieve the goal.
3.Steps are activity to archieve the goal.
Example Procedure text
How to Turn on Your Computer
1.First,get your finger out.
2.Second,push the button.
3.Finally,welldone !!! you complete the challenge.
How to Send Email in Yahoo
• On yahoo mail welcome screen or on any of the mail screens,you can see Compose and Compose text Message buttons displayed.Select either one of them.If you click Composebutton,you can include special fonts,emoticons,colours,etc.Normally you select this.If you select Compose Text Message,you cannot include any special pictures or icon.
• Enter an email address in to fields (mandatory) and if necessary the Cc and Bcc fields.
• Type the topic of your email in the subject fields.
• Type your email ,in the large editing area.If your email is in English,you can spell check the message.
• Clik send to send the message.You should receive a confirmation screensaying the message was sent.
G.Report Text
Report text is used to talk and write about something in general.
The Grammatical of a report text are :
• Focus on generic participants.
• Use of relational process to state what is and that which it is.
• Use Simple Present Tense.
• No teporal sequence.
The text structure of report are :
• Title
• General classification / identification.
• Description / series of descriptions of subject.
Example Report Text
Rock Music
Rock music is a part of popular music today.It is played and listened in almost every countries in the world.Rock and roll was the name given to the music that developed in the early 1950’s.It is believed that the term rock and roll was first used by a disk Jockey,Alan Freed.
In 1955,records of a young singer from Tennessee,Elvis Presley,were heard accros the US.After he appeared on nation – wide television,Elvis Presley’s singing and his performing style come to mean rock and roll all over the world.Then came Bill Haley and The Comets.Rock mainly became the music of the young.They understood its beat and sound,and its lyrics.
The 1970’s were the time of big development in the rock industry.Rock become a very big business,earned more money annualy than any other form of entertainment including the film industry.
Dances
Dances are part of celebrations,and mark important times of life such as births,wedding and funerals.They are parts of festivities at times of planting and harvesting of rice,and other important events.
There are many different types and styles of dances.They are Court,Martial,Mask dances.The dances of different island vary.Men and woman seldom perform together ,except in courtship dances.Generally dancers wil be either men or women.Indonesian dances are slow,with very controlled movementS.The dancers’s arm and hand movement are very important.
The court dances are very formal in style.Dancers keep their faces without any expression,and perform precise gestures.Some dances reflect the pomp and fomality of the court.Some dances tell stories from the Ramayana,the Hindu holy book.
Martial dances are generally performed only by men.They were originally war dances and in come the men demonstrade their skill in using the weapons of battle,such as spears.Some dances involve the use of elaborate masks.It is believed that when a dancer wears a mask,he takes on the character of the mask as though the spirit of the mask takes over.Each island has different mask dances,and different styles of masks.
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I.Announcement
Attention please !
Continental executive bus will be leaving from Bukit Tinggi through Pekan Baru at 14.40. Would passengers now board the bus ?
ANALYSIS VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
A.VALIDITAS
Questions no 1-10 have been valid because questions no 1 – 10 match to test speaking skill.Question no 1- 10 appropriate with competence standard and appropriate to basic competence and indicator too.In questions no 1- 10 there are dialog to test speaking skill.In there,students is ordered to complete the dialog,for example dialog that consist of certainty or uncertainty expresion,doubtness expression,admiration expression,attention expression,repetition expression.Questions no 1 – 10 have made students can share their idea about the expression of certainty or uncertainty expresion,doubtness expression,admiration expression,attention and that appropriate with competence standard,basic competence and indicator too.The questions is not so difficult and is not so easy.
Questions no 11 – 26 have been valid because questions no 11 – 26 match to test listening skill.They appropriate with competence standard,basic competence and indicator too.There is text about Music rock.In there,students is ordered to fill in the blank based on the text that is read by their teacher.In there,students must fill in the blank with appropriate word.For example students can fill in the blank with verb,noun etc.Students can share their idea to answer the questions.The questions is not so difficult and is not so easy.Questions no 11 – 26 have measured to test listening skill.
Questions no 27- 40 have been valid because questions no 27 – 40 and question no 44 match to test reading skill.Questions no 27 – 40 appropriate with competence standard,basic competence and indicator too.In there,students is ordered to read the text and then answer the questions based on the text.The text that used are procedure text and report text.Questions no 27 – 40 have measured reading skill from students.Students can’t answer that questions without read the text.So,its important to read the text because the answer from that question based on the text.Questions in there can measure students’s ability in reading.So far,students can understand content of the text.
Questions no 41 – 45 have been valid because questions no 41,42,43 and 45 match to test writing skill.Questions no 27 – 40 appropriate with competence standard,basic competence and indicator too.In there,student is ordered to write the answer.For example in there,students is ordered to rearange the jumbled sentences,is ordered to write definition of procedure and explain it with text structure of procedure text,is ordered to make dialog.It match to measure writing skill from students.So far student’s skill to make and to write procedure,to make and write dialog etc.
B.RELIABILITAS
All Questions from no 1 – 45 have been reliable because,questions from no 1 – 45 is matched with student’s ability in Junior high school at IX grade semester 1.Questions from no 1 – 45 have ability to defend quality consistency from test result.Questions from no 1 – 45 have consistency of the test,have measured what should be measured in every language skill in Junior high school at IX grade semester 1.
MAKALAH PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
RELATIONSHIP AMONG LANGUAGE,THOUGHT AND UTTERANCE
Written to Fulfil One of Psycholinguistics Subject’s Task
Created by :
Vita Fitriyani 082122044
Nining Suhaeni 082122045
Sri Puspita Sari 082122059
Resti Tantiawanti 082122063
Yully Erpani 082122072
Uu Parida 082122078
6B
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING
SILIWANGI UNIVERSITY
2011
PREFACE
All price due to Allah SWT, by the grace of him, this working paper, entitled “RELATIONSHIP AMONG LANGUAGE,THOUGHT AND UTTERANCE” has been finished.
If one asks about the relation between thought and language, people expect the issue to concern such matters as whether we think in language, whether creatures without language can "think", and the way language shapes our concepts. In my opinion, there is a much deeper question, which concerns the nature of linguistic communication. Philosophers and linguists standardly conceive of language as basically a means by which speakers convey the content of their thoughts to others. The question is whether that is a correct picture of linguistic communication. This is a question about the relation between thought and language because this standard picture of communication gives propositional thought a certain priority over language. If, as I intend to show, there are reasons to doubt the standard picture, then we cannot expect to make much progress with the more superficial questions without thinking about the nature of linguistic communication.
Tasikmalaya, March 2011
The writter
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background
B. Set of problem....................................................................................
CHAPTER II DISCUSSION
A. Definition of Language and Function of Language.......................
B. Definition of Thought.......................................................................
C. Definition of Utterance.....................................................................
D. Relationship Among Language,Thought and Utterance...............
CHAPTER III CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion..........................................................................................
B. Suggestion...........................................................................................
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ENCLOSURE
ii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.Background
Language without bound medium bringing all something can included in man understanding field. Therefore comprehends language will enable researcher to comprehend form of man understandings.
Language is man media thinks in abstraction enabling objects faktual is orthogonal transformation to to become abstraction symbols. With existence of this orthogonal transformation hence man can mull over about an object, though the object is not terinderakan when the thinking process done by his its ( Solar Sumantri, 1998).
Language matter can be comprehended through Linguistik as told by Yudibrata that linguistics is science studying language, usually yields the languages theory; not that way the things of with student as language, ( 1998: 2). Student as organism with all its the attitude is including process happened in student itself when language learning cannot be comprehended by linguistics, but only can be comprehended through other science related to his psychology. On the basis of the thing emerges new science discipline so-called psycholinguistic or called as also with term language psychology.
Related to above thing, can be told actually man can think without using language, but language waters down ability to learn and remembers, solve problem and concludes. Language enables individual to encode event and object in the form of words. With solvent individual language of abstraction of its the experience and communicates it at others because language is unlimited symbol system capable to lay open all ideas.
Based on above idea , can be told interrelationship between languages, mind and utterances is a real theme challanges in psychology study world. Hence from that, writer copes express the relationship by figuring in opinion sight and concept from some experts relating to this science discipline.
B.Set of Problem
1.What is language and what function of language?
2.How the relationship among language,thought and utterance ?
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A.Definition of Language and Function of Language
Language is a tool to express something towards our audience,that is why we can say that language is a medium of communication.Language can be a “ bridge “ to the communication between dissimilar cultures.
Language does not exist in a vacuum.It serves and is molded by other systems in the human mind.Because it is used for conveying ideas,its structure and function must reflect these ideas.Because it must be spoken and understood easily and efficiently,its structure and function are forced to stay within the limits imposed by people’s processing capacities.Because it is used for communication within a complex social and cultural system,its structure and function are molded by these forces as well.Yet once people have learned how to use language,it hinders them in thinking about others.It molds many aspects of their daily affairs.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. In another definition, language is a system of communication by sound, through the organs of speech and hearing, among human beings of certain group or community, using vocal symbol possesing arbitrary conventional meaning to communicate, to share the culture, and share the ideas with other people. And it can be written forms uses symbols that called characters to build some words to make something had been spoken can be known by other people without any repetition speech.
1. Language as a system
The key term in the above definition is ‘system’, it’s also the most difficult term to discuss. We may observe that a language must be systematic, for otherwise it could be not learned to used consistenly.
2. Language as arbitrary
The term ‘arbitrary’ in the definitions doesn’t mean that everything about language is unpredictable, for the languages don’t vary in every possible way. Arbitrary means selected random and without reason.
3. Language as vocal
The term ‘vocal’ in the definitions refers to the fact that the primary medium of language is sound, and it is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing system.
4. Language as symbol
The term ‘symbol’ in the definitions refers to the fact there is no connection, or at least in a few cases only a minimal connection, between the sounds that people use ad the objects to which these sounds refer.
5. Language as human
The term ‘human’ in the definition refers to the fact that the kind of system that interest us is possesed only by human beings, and is very different from communication system that order forms of life possess.
6. Language as communication
The final term in the definition is ‘communication’ language is used to communcation.
Language user are every human in the world, no matter what they are, where they are and how they live. It is very essence of what makes human where ever you go, whoever you met, whenever you want to share your ideas, whatever you want to do, however you act, you will need a communication tool and language is the answer.
Language is a system for communicating, written languages use symbol to build words. The entire set of words is the languages vocabulary.
As a tool o communication, language has the following functions:
1. Emotive speech
It functions to express feeling, perception, and emotion of the speaker.
2. Phatic speech
It functions to take care of social relationship on certain situation or condition.
3. Cognitive speech
It functions to express everything is surroundings (informative).
4. Rhetorical speech
It functions to influence the thought or perception of the audiences.
5. Metalingual speech
It function to describe language it self.
6. Poetic speech
It has esthetical functios.
B.Definition of Thought
Thought is a mental process which allows someone to make a conscious decision, to imagine and generally operate on a rational symbol .There are ideas in the mind. These ideas that make a person easy to think, it's easy to determine something.
Language is a realization of ideas, ideas in the mind, not even a line distinguishing a firm that delivers ideas and thoughts. There is also an opinion that the language is a reflection of the mind, what in talking about is what they think. Example: we can see clearly a person whose mind chaotic mess also resulted in the language. Sometimes if someone is thinking of something heavy, tasteful concerned to speak.
According to Schlenker :
The human mind is determined by a syst em of classification of certain language used by humans. According to this hypothesis the mental world of Indonesian people are different from the mental world of English people because they use different language.
C.Definition of Utterance
Utterance is a complete unit of speech (what one speaker say).In another word,utterance is the act of expressing word (something that you say).We use term utterance to refers to complete communicative units,which may consist of single words,phrases,clauses or clauses combination spoken in context,in contrast to the term sentence which we reserve for unit consisting of at least one.
Intrinsically in activity communicates happened process to produce and comprehends utterance.In other word, in linguistic usage happened process to change mind to become code and changes code to become mind. Utterance is synthesis from distorting process of concept becomes code, while understanding is ordering the result of code analysis.
In comprehending an utterance,there are at least three factors which assist we.The first is factors to relate to knowledge of the world.As member of society,we has coexisted with our environment.Nature around this gives to us knowledges about world life . Some of this knowledge haves the character of universal while some other is special about public where us live.Understanding to an utterance can desist, so after utterance was understood or is continued with an action.If we to hear utterance or to read a discourse which its contents is issued ,so in generally we only comprehend just of what said or written in the discourse.
D.Relationship Among Language,Thought and Utterance
Before using language, a linguistic consumer beforehand obtains language.In process is having linguistic happened process to comprehend and yields utterance, in the form of sentences or builds the language sentences.
Intrinsically in activity communicates happened process to produce and comprehends utterance.In other word, in linguistic usage happened process to change mind to become code and changes code to become mind. Utterance is synthesis from distorting process of concept becomes code, while understanding is ordering the result of code analysis.
In comprehending an utterance,there are at least three factors which assist we.The first is factors to relate to knowledge of the world.As member of society,we has coexisted with our environment.Nature around this gives to us knowledges about world life . Some of this knowledge haves the character of universal while some other is special about public where us live.Understanding to an utterance can desist, so after utterance was understood or is continued with an action.If we to hear utterance or to read a discourse which its contents is issued ,so in generally we only comprehend just of what said or written in the discourse.
Language is realizing ideas. Located idea in mind. Even there is no assertive distinguishment line,between idea and mind.
We can see explains someone who its the mind is in disorder results its the language is in disorder also. Sometime also if someone was thinking of thing weight, appetitive not the to speak. Also there is having a notion that language is mind mirror, what discussed be what thought of. Linguistic formed from mind, or form of language ( individually off the cuff and) imitates or follows form of mind or idea.
However if we will more broodingly sees, in fact the language only " form" from idea or mind only. So linguistic analysis by discharging it from idea analysis is perverting. Mean, may not be be linguistic without there are idea, so also opposite is that way true? Isn't it true many people gibber when dream? Where idea they are in a state of rest? Isn't it true also someone who nervous about correctness aphasia, with the meaning is also relation between emotion with language?
Having language that is process submits meaning by speaker to hearer through one or with refer to utterance.Process is having linguistic told to works well if meaning sent by speaker can be reception by hearer very similar to mean by the hearer.In opposite a process is having language can be told not to run carefully if meaning sent by speaker reception or comprehended by hearer unmatched to desired by this hearer.Unmatched can be because of factor hearer which less clever in producing utterance,can be caused by hearer factor which reception indigent that utterance,or can also as result of environmental factor at the time utterance transferred from mouth speaker to ear hearer .So an perceivable utterance carefully by hearer if can make semantic encode, gramatic encode, good encode with phonology conversely decode hearer phonology, gramatic decode and semantic decode from utterance sent by speaker carefully too.Beside area place of utterance takes place also have the character of condusif.
Adequate ability from speaker in producing utterance and adequate ability from hearer in reception utterance will cause meaning - meaning sent by acceptable speaker correctly by hearer.To gets the picture meaning an utterance many factors which must be paid attention like social factor,psychology factor ,culture factor .In factor semantics study - the factor mirror at so-called level meaning, leksikal meaning and idiomatical, gramatical meaning and contextual meaning.The thirth of the meaning emerging in every process is having language.
Linguistic as presentation or result of process and as thing processed by either in the form of oral language and also linguistic written through language, either in writing and or verbally. If related to skill of language which must be mastered by someone, this thing relates to skill is having language, that is mimicry, talks, reads, and writes.
All languages obtained intrinsically required to communicate. Man will only can say and comprehends one otherly in linguistic words. Language studied by since children is not neutral language in objective reality. Linguistic has subjective orientation in depicting world experience of man. This orientation here in after influences how man to think and says.
Behavior that is visible in having language is behavior of man when talking and writes or when he to produce language, while attitude which is not seen is behavior of man when comprehending corrected reading or read causing becomes thing owned by it or process thing will be said or written by it.
Man as language consumer can be considered to be organism having activity to reach psychology domains, either cognate, affective, and also psikomotor. Ability applies good language in reseptif ( mimicry and reads) and or productive ( talks and writes) entangles third of the domain.
Cognate domain focusing in brain is domain that is which is is all important is this case is source of at the same time other psychological domains controller, be effective domain taste and psychomotor domains. In this bearing Syah ( 2004: 22) arises that without cognate domain difficult to be imagined one can thinks. Without ability thinks impossible of the someone gets the picture and believes matters benefit presented to it.
Affective is psychology domain covering all feeling phenomenon of like love, sorrowful, likes, hateful, and certain positions to its the ownself and area. While, psikomotor is psychology domain which all concreete physical charitables and easy to be observed either its the amount and also quality because in character open ( Rightful, 2004: 52).
Some experts tries explains form relation between language and mind, or more narrowed again, how language influences man mind. From many figures explained relation between language and mind, writer sees that presentation Edward Sapir and Benyamin Whorf which many cited by various researchers in checking the relation of language and mind.
Sapir and Worf tells that there is no bilingual having equality to be considered as the same social reality. Sapir and Worf elaborates two hypothesises about interrelationship between languages and mind.
1. First hypothesis is lingusitic relativity hypothesis is expressing that difference of linguistic structure in general parallel with cognate difference non language ( nonlinguistic cognitive). Linguistic difference causes difference of man mind who is using the language.
2. Second hypothesis is linguistics determinism is expressing that linguistic structure influences way of inidvidu perception and world natural existence perseptual. Equally, cognition structure of man determined by category and structure which there [are] in language.
Linguistic influence to mind can happened through habituation and operates it formal aspect of language, for example gramar and lexicon. Whorf tells " grammatical and lexical resources individual of of languages heavily constrain the conceptual representations available to their speakers". Gramar and lexicon in a language becomes the conceptual representation determinant in the language consumer. Besides formal habituation and aspect of language, one of dominant aspect in conceptioning Whorf and Sapir is linguistic problem influences categorisation in human perception which will become premise in thinking, like what told by Whorf following :
" We divided nature with line made by by our native language. Category and type which we are insulation from phenomenon world have no we to meet because all the phenomenons caught by face every observer. In contrast, world presents a kaleidoscopic flux which full of impression categorized by our mind, and this is the linguistic system in our mind. We divided nature, its the organization into concept, choose important elements.
Linguistic for Whorf social reality guide and condition of individual mind about a problem and social process. Nonliving individual in objective world, not only in social activity world like the one usually is comprehended it, but hardly determined by certain language symbols becoming social communication medium. There is no bilingual of which is same enough to represent the same reality. Residence world various publics assessed by Whorf as same world however with different characteristic. Brief said, inferential that man opinion?sight tentag world formed by language so that because language differed in hence opinion?sight about world also differs in. Selectively individual filters sensory that come like the one programmed by language which utility. That way, public using different language has difference of sensory also.
CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A.Conclusion
Language is a tool to express something towards our audience,that is why we can say that language is a medium of communication.Language can be a “ bridge “ to the communication between dissimilar cultures. Language is realizing ideas. Located idea in mind. Even there is no assertive distinguishment line,between idea and mind.
Language comprehended as symbol system, we must see language as part of which is not is dissociated with mind owned by man, and nature a world of residing in around by it. When communicating with others, man requires representation symbol what to which is drawn marrow to be the, hence searched by symbol. This symbol is not selected itself, but through convention process with other man in its the community, until finally chosen certain symbol to symbolise it. The symbol generally is in the form of word, said is inveterate linguistics symbol applied representation of idea mind to the feeling or with concreete media in the form of language.
Process changes mind and the feeling that people have is marrow communicator to become speech in the form of language must pass encoding phase. Encoding is done by the way of memilah and chooses linguistics symbols like sound and word which able to represent mind and feeling which will be submitted. At the time of the same of logic arranges that fraction of mind and feeling which has implied in code is in the form of the language can be submitted systematic. Level of systematic of organization of the message will affect at level understanding of utterance by speaker. After the mind and feeling is tidy in the form of language code, hence phase hereinafter say in the form of oral or writes. Secretory utterance network from organs of speech, or letter network written down is element outside becoming message carrier media. Utterance network or the written form is external element. element of depth itself is trying mind and feeling submitted by speaker.
B.Suggestion
The writers realize that this paper is fa from being perfect.So,the writers will be very grateful for the critism and suggestions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Darwowidjojo, Soejono. (2005). Psycholinguistik. Jakarta : Yayasan Obor Indonesia.
Clark, H Herbert and Clark V Eve. (1977). Psychology and Language. New York : Harcourt Brave Jovanovich, INC.
Chaer,Abdul.(2009).Psikolinguistik. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta.
http://Susilo.Adi.Setyawan.Student .Fkip.UNS.ac.id/2010.Hubungan antara bahasa dan pikiran dalam kajian psycholinguiastics.
Written to Fulfil One of Psycholinguistics Subject’s Task
Created by :
Vita Fitriyani 082122044
Nining Suhaeni 082122045
Sri Puspita Sari 082122059
Resti Tantiawanti 082122063
Yully Erpani 082122072
Uu Parida 082122078
6B
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING
SILIWANGI UNIVERSITY
2011
PREFACE
All price due to Allah SWT, by the grace of him, this working paper, entitled “RELATIONSHIP AMONG LANGUAGE,THOUGHT AND UTTERANCE” has been finished.
If one asks about the relation between thought and language, people expect the issue to concern such matters as whether we think in language, whether creatures without language can "think", and the way language shapes our concepts. In my opinion, there is a much deeper question, which concerns the nature of linguistic communication. Philosophers and linguists standardly conceive of language as basically a means by which speakers convey the content of their thoughts to others. The question is whether that is a correct picture of linguistic communication. This is a question about the relation between thought and language because this standard picture of communication gives propositional thought a certain priority over language. If, as I intend to show, there are reasons to doubt the standard picture, then we cannot expect to make much progress with the more superficial questions without thinking about the nature of linguistic communication.
Tasikmalaya, March 2011
The writter
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background
B. Set of problem....................................................................................
CHAPTER II DISCUSSION
A. Definition of Language and Function of Language.......................
B. Definition of Thought.......................................................................
C. Definition of Utterance.....................................................................
D. Relationship Among Language,Thought and Utterance...............
CHAPTER III CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion..........................................................................................
B. Suggestion...........................................................................................
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ENCLOSURE
ii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.Background
Language without bound medium bringing all something can included in man understanding field. Therefore comprehends language will enable researcher to comprehend form of man understandings.
Language is man media thinks in abstraction enabling objects faktual is orthogonal transformation to to become abstraction symbols. With existence of this orthogonal transformation hence man can mull over about an object, though the object is not terinderakan when the thinking process done by his its ( Solar Sumantri, 1998).
Language matter can be comprehended through Linguistik as told by Yudibrata that linguistics is science studying language, usually yields the languages theory; not that way the things of with student as language, ( 1998: 2). Student as organism with all its the attitude is including process happened in student itself when language learning cannot be comprehended by linguistics, but only can be comprehended through other science related to his psychology. On the basis of the thing emerges new science discipline so-called psycholinguistic or called as also with term language psychology.
Related to above thing, can be told actually man can think without using language, but language waters down ability to learn and remembers, solve problem and concludes. Language enables individual to encode event and object in the form of words. With solvent individual language of abstraction of its the experience and communicates it at others because language is unlimited symbol system capable to lay open all ideas.
Based on above idea , can be told interrelationship between languages, mind and utterances is a real theme challanges in psychology study world. Hence from that, writer copes express the relationship by figuring in opinion sight and concept from some experts relating to this science discipline.
B.Set of Problem
1.What is language and what function of language?
2.How the relationship among language,thought and utterance ?
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A.Definition of Language and Function of Language
Language is a tool to express something towards our audience,that is why we can say that language is a medium of communication.Language can be a “ bridge “ to the communication between dissimilar cultures.
Language does not exist in a vacuum.It serves and is molded by other systems in the human mind.Because it is used for conveying ideas,its structure and function must reflect these ideas.Because it must be spoken and understood easily and efficiently,its structure and function are forced to stay within the limits imposed by people’s processing capacities.Because it is used for communication within a complex social and cultural system,its structure and function are molded by these forces as well.Yet once people have learned how to use language,it hinders them in thinking about others.It molds many aspects of their daily affairs.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. In another definition, language is a system of communication by sound, through the organs of speech and hearing, among human beings of certain group or community, using vocal symbol possesing arbitrary conventional meaning to communicate, to share the culture, and share the ideas with other people. And it can be written forms uses symbols that called characters to build some words to make something had been spoken can be known by other people without any repetition speech.
1. Language as a system
The key term in the above definition is ‘system’, it’s also the most difficult term to discuss. We may observe that a language must be systematic, for otherwise it could be not learned to used consistenly.
2. Language as arbitrary
The term ‘arbitrary’ in the definitions doesn’t mean that everything about language is unpredictable, for the languages don’t vary in every possible way. Arbitrary means selected random and without reason.
3. Language as vocal
The term ‘vocal’ in the definitions refers to the fact that the primary medium of language is sound, and it is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing system.
4. Language as symbol
The term ‘symbol’ in the definitions refers to the fact there is no connection, or at least in a few cases only a minimal connection, between the sounds that people use ad the objects to which these sounds refer.
5. Language as human
The term ‘human’ in the definition refers to the fact that the kind of system that interest us is possesed only by human beings, and is very different from communication system that order forms of life possess.
6. Language as communication
The final term in the definition is ‘communication’ language is used to communcation.
Language user are every human in the world, no matter what they are, where they are and how they live. It is very essence of what makes human where ever you go, whoever you met, whenever you want to share your ideas, whatever you want to do, however you act, you will need a communication tool and language is the answer.
Language is a system for communicating, written languages use symbol to build words. The entire set of words is the languages vocabulary.
As a tool o communication, language has the following functions:
1. Emotive speech
It functions to express feeling, perception, and emotion of the speaker.
2. Phatic speech
It functions to take care of social relationship on certain situation or condition.
3. Cognitive speech
It functions to express everything is surroundings (informative).
4. Rhetorical speech
It functions to influence the thought or perception of the audiences.
5. Metalingual speech
It function to describe language it self.
6. Poetic speech
It has esthetical functios.
B.Definition of Thought
Thought is a mental process which allows someone to make a conscious decision, to imagine and generally operate on a rational symbol .There are ideas in the mind. These ideas that make a person easy to think, it's easy to determine something.
Language is a realization of ideas, ideas in the mind, not even a line distinguishing a firm that delivers ideas and thoughts. There is also an opinion that the language is a reflection of the mind, what in talking about is what they think. Example: we can see clearly a person whose mind chaotic mess also resulted in the language. Sometimes if someone is thinking of something heavy, tasteful concerned to speak.
According to Schlenker :
The human mind is determined by a syst em of classification of certain language used by humans. According to this hypothesis the mental world of Indonesian people are different from the mental world of English people because they use different language.
C.Definition of Utterance
Utterance is a complete unit of speech (what one speaker say).In another word,utterance is the act of expressing word (something that you say).We use term utterance to refers to complete communicative units,which may consist of single words,phrases,clauses or clauses combination spoken in context,in contrast to the term sentence which we reserve for unit consisting of at least one.
Intrinsically in activity communicates happened process to produce and comprehends utterance.In other word, in linguistic usage happened process to change mind to become code and changes code to become mind. Utterance is synthesis from distorting process of concept becomes code, while understanding is ordering the result of code analysis.
In comprehending an utterance,there are at least three factors which assist we.The first is factors to relate to knowledge of the world.As member of society,we has coexisted with our environment.Nature around this gives to us knowledges about world life . Some of this knowledge haves the character of universal while some other is special about public where us live.Understanding to an utterance can desist, so after utterance was understood or is continued with an action.If we to hear utterance or to read a discourse which its contents is issued ,so in generally we only comprehend just of what said or written in the discourse.
D.Relationship Among Language,Thought and Utterance
Before using language, a linguistic consumer beforehand obtains language.In process is having linguistic happened process to comprehend and yields utterance, in the form of sentences or builds the language sentences.
Intrinsically in activity communicates happened process to produce and comprehends utterance.In other word, in linguistic usage happened process to change mind to become code and changes code to become mind. Utterance is synthesis from distorting process of concept becomes code, while understanding is ordering the result of code analysis.
In comprehending an utterance,there are at least three factors which assist we.The first is factors to relate to knowledge of the world.As member of society,we has coexisted with our environment.Nature around this gives to us knowledges about world life . Some of this knowledge haves the character of universal while some other is special about public where us live.Understanding to an utterance can desist, so after utterance was understood or is continued with an action.If we to hear utterance or to read a discourse which its contents is issued ,so in generally we only comprehend just of what said or written in the discourse.
Language is realizing ideas. Located idea in mind. Even there is no assertive distinguishment line,between idea and mind.
We can see explains someone who its the mind is in disorder results its the language is in disorder also. Sometime also if someone was thinking of thing weight, appetitive not the to speak. Also there is having a notion that language is mind mirror, what discussed be what thought of. Linguistic formed from mind, or form of language ( individually off the cuff and) imitates or follows form of mind or idea.
However if we will more broodingly sees, in fact the language only " form" from idea or mind only. So linguistic analysis by discharging it from idea analysis is perverting. Mean, may not be be linguistic without there are idea, so also opposite is that way true? Isn't it true many people gibber when dream? Where idea they are in a state of rest? Isn't it true also someone who nervous about correctness aphasia, with the meaning is also relation between emotion with language?
Having language that is process submits meaning by speaker to hearer through one or with refer to utterance.Process is having linguistic told to works well if meaning sent by speaker can be reception by hearer very similar to mean by the hearer.In opposite a process is having language can be told not to run carefully if meaning sent by speaker reception or comprehended by hearer unmatched to desired by this hearer.Unmatched can be because of factor hearer which less clever in producing utterance,can be caused by hearer factor which reception indigent that utterance,or can also as result of environmental factor at the time utterance transferred from mouth speaker to ear hearer .So an perceivable utterance carefully by hearer if can make semantic encode, gramatic encode, good encode with phonology conversely decode hearer phonology, gramatic decode and semantic decode from utterance sent by speaker carefully too.Beside area place of utterance takes place also have the character of condusif.
Adequate ability from speaker in producing utterance and adequate ability from hearer in reception utterance will cause meaning - meaning sent by acceptable speaker correctly by hearer.To gets the picture meaning an utterance many factors which must be paid attention like social factor,psychology factor ,culture factor .In factor semantics study - the factor mirror at so-called level meaning, leksikal meaning and idiomatical, gramatical meaning and contextual meaning.The thirth of the meaning emerging in every process is having language.
Linguistic as presentation or result of process and as thing processed by either in the form of oral language and also linguistic written through language, either in writing and or verbally. If related to skill of language which must be mastered by someone, this thing relates to skill is having language, that is mimicry, talks, reads, and writes.
All languages obtained intrinsically required to communicate. Man will only can say and comprehends one otherly in linguistic words. Language studied by since children is not neutral language in objective reality. Linguistic has subjective orientation in depicting world experience of man. This orientation here in after influences how man to think and says.
Behavior that is visible in having language is behavior of man when talking and writes or when he to produce language, while attitude which is not seen is behavior of man when comprehending corrected reading or read causing becomes thing owned by it or process thing will be said or written by it.
Man as language consumer can be considered to be organism having activity to reach psychology domains, either cognate, affective, and also psikomotor. Ability applies good language in reseptif ( mimicry and reads) and or productive ( talks and writes) entangles third of the domain.
Cognate domain focusing in brain is domain that is which is is all important is this case is source of at the same time other psychological domains controller, be effective domain taste and psychomotor domains. In this bearing Syah ( 2004: 22) arises that without cognate domain difficult to be imagined one can thinks. Without ability thinks impossible of the someone gets the picture and believes matters benefit presented to it.
Affective is psychology domain covering all feeling phenomenon of like love, sorrowful, likes, hateful, and certain positions to its the ownself and area. While, psikomotor is psychology domain which all concreete physical charitables and easy to be observed either its the amount and also quality because in character open ( Rightful, 2004: 52).
Some experts tries explains form relation between language and mind, or more narrowed again, how language influences man mind. From many figures explained relation between language and mind, writer sees that presentation Edward Sapir and Benyamin Whorf which many cited by various researchers in checking the relation of language and mind.
Sapir and Worf tells that there is no bilingual having equality to be considered as the same social reality. Sapir and Worf elaborates two hypothesises about interrelationship between languages and mind.
1. First hypothesis is lingusitic relativity hypothesis is expressing that difference of linguistic structure in general parallel with cognate difference non language ( nonlinguistic cognitive). Linguistic difference causes difference of man mind who is using the language.
2. Second hypothesis is linguistics determinism is expressing that linguistic structure influences way of inidvidu perception and world natural existence perseptual. Equally, cognition structure of man determined by category and structure which there [are] in language.
Linguistic influence to mind can happened through habituation and operates it formal aspect of language, for example gramar and lexicon. Whorf tells " grammatical and lexical resources individual of of languages heavily constrain the conceptual representations available to their speakers". Gramar and lexicon in a language becomes the conceptual representation determinant in the language consumer. Besides formal habituation and aspect of language, one of dominant aspect in conceptioning Whorf and Sapir is linguistic problem influences categorisation in human perception which will become premise in thinking, like what told by Whorf following :
" We divided nature with line made by by our native language. Category and type which we are insulation from phenomenon world have no we to meet because all the phenomenons caught by face every observer. In contrast, world presents a kaleidoscopic flux which full of impression categorized by our mind, and this is the linguistic system in our mind. We divided nature, its the organization into concept, choose important elements.
Linguistic for Whorf social reality guide and condition of individual mind about a problem and social process. Nonliving individual in objective world, not only in social activity world like the one usually is comprehended it, but hardly determined by certain language symbols becoming social communication medium. There is no bilingual of which is same enough to represent the same reality. Residence world various publics assessed by Whorf as same world however with different characteristic. Brief said, inferential that man opinion?sight tentag world formed by language so that because language differed in hence opinion?sight about world also differs in. Selectively individual filters sensory that come like the one programmed by language which utility. That way, public using different language has difference of sensory also.
CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A.Conclusion
Language is a tool to express something towards our audience,that is why we can say that language is a medium of communication.Language can be a “ bridge “ to the communication between dissimilar cultures. Language is realizing ideas. Located idea in mind. Even there is no assertive distinguishment line,between idea and mind.
Language comprehended as symbol system, we must see language as part of which is not is dissociated with mind owned by man, and nature a world of residing in around by it. When communicating with others, man requires representation symbol what to which is drawn marrow to be the, hence searched by symbol. This symbol is not selected itself, but through convention process with other man in its the community, until finally chosen certain symbol to symbolise it. The symbol generally is in the form of word, said is inveterate linguistics symbol applied representation of idea mind to the feeling or with concreete media in the form of language.
Process changes mind and the feeling that people have is marrow communicator to become speech in the form of language must pass encoding phase. Encoding is done by the way of memilah and chooses linguistics symbols like sound and word which able to represent mind and feeling which will be submitted. At the time of the same of logic arranges that fraction of mind and feeling which has implied in code is in the form of the language can be submitted systematic. Level of systematic of organization of the message will affect at level understanding of utterance by speaker. After the mind and feeling is tidy in the form of language code, hence phase hereinafter say in the form of oral or writes. Secretory utterance network from organs of speech, or letter network written down is element outside becoming message carrier media. Utterance network or the written form is external element. element of depth itself is trying mind and feeling submitted by speaker.
B.Suggestion
The writers realize that this paper is fa from being perfect.So,the writers will be very grateful for the critism and suggestions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Darwowidjojo, Soejono. (2005). Psycholinguistik. Jakarta : Yayasan Obor Indonesia.
Clark, H Herbert and Clark V Eve. (1977). Psychology and Language. New York : Harcourt Brave Jovanovich, INC.
Chaer,Abdul.(2009).Psikolinguistik. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta.
http://Susilo.Adi.Setyawan.Student .Fkip.UNS.ac.id/2010.Hubungan antara bahasa dan pikiran dalam kajian psycholinguiastics.
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